The victory of modern science did not become complete until it established one more essential principlc-namclv, free and cooperative communication among all scientists.  Although this necessity seems obvious to us now, it was not obvious to the philosophers of ancient and medieval times.  The Pythagoreans of ancient Greece were a secret society who kept their mathematical discoveries to themselves.  The alchemists of the Middle Ages deliberately obscured their writings to keep their so-called findings within as small an inner circle as possible.  In the sixteenth century, the Italian mathematician Niccol'o Tartaglia, who discovered a method of solving cubic equations, saw nothing wrong in attempting to keep it a secret.  When Geronimo Cardano, a fellow mathematician, wormed the secret out of Tartaglia and published it as his own, Tartaglia naturally was outraged, but aside from Cardano's trickery in claiming the credit, he was certainly correct in his reply that such a discovery had to be published.
Nowadays no scientific discovery is reckoned a discovery if it is kept secret.  The English cbemist Robert Boyle, a century after Tartaglia and Cardano, stressed the importance of publishing all scientific observa-tions in full detail.  A new observation or discovery, moreover, is no longer considered valid, even after publication, until at least one other investi-gator has repeated the observation and "confirmed" it.  Science is the product not of individuals but of a "scientific community."
One of the first groups (and certainly the most famous) to repre-sent such a scientific community was the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, usually called simply the "Royal Society." It grew out of informal meetings, beginning about 1645, of a group of gentlemen interested in the new scientific methods originated by Galileo.  In 1660, the Society was formally chartered by King Charles II.
The members of the Royal Society met and discussed their findings openly, wrote letters describing them in English rather than Latin, and pursued their experiments with vigor and vivacity.  Nevertheless, through most of the seventeenth century they remained in a defensive position.  The attitude of many of their learned contemporaries might be expressed by a cartoon, after the modern fashion, showing the lofty shades of Pythagoras, Euclid, and Aristotle staring down haughtily at children playing with marbles, labeled "Royal Society."
All this was changed by the work of Isaac Newton, who became a member of the society.  From the observations and conclusions of Galileo, of the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe, and of the German astronomer Johannes Kepler, who fi-ured out the elliptical nature of the orbits of the planets, Newton arrived by induction at his three simple laws of motion and his great fundamental generalization-the law of uni-versal gravitation.  The educated world was so impressed with this dis-covery that Newton was idolized, almost deified, in his own lifetime.  This

majestic new universe, built upon a few simple assumptions, now made the Greek philosophers look like boys playing with marbles.  The revolu-tion that Galileo had initiated at the beginning of the seventeenth century was triumphantly completed by Newton at the century's end.

It would be pleasant to be able to say that science and man have lived happily ever since.  But the truth is that the real difficulties of both were only beginning.  As long as science had remained deductive, natural philosophy could be part of the general culture of all educated men.  But inductive science became an immense labor-of observation, learning, and analysis.  It was no longer a game for amateurs.  And the complexity of science grew with each decade.  During the century after Newton, it was still possible for a man of unusual attainments to master all fields of scientific knowledge.  But, by 1800, this bad become entirely impracti-cable.  As time went on, it was increasingly necessary for a scientist to limit himself to a portion of the field if be intended an intensive con-cern with it.  Specialization was forced on science by its own inexorable growth.  And with each generation of scientists, specialization has grown more and more intense.
The publications of scientists concerning their individual work have never been so copious-and so unreadable for anyone but their fellow specialists.  This has been a great handicap to science itself, for basic advances in scientific knowledge often spring from the cross-fertilization

of knowledge from different specialties.  What is even more ominous is is that science has increasingly lost touch with nonscicntists.  Under such circumstances scientists come to be regarded almost as magicians-feared rather than admired.  And the impression that science is incom-prehensible magic, to be understood only by a chosen few who are suspiciously different from ordinary mankind, is bound to turn many youngsters away from science.
In the 1960's, indeed, strong feelings of outright hostility toward science were to be found among the young-even among the educated young in the colleges.  Our industrialized society is based on the scien-tific discoveries of the last two centuries, and our society finds it is plagued by undesirable side-effects of its very success.
Improved medical techniques have brought about a runaway increase in population; chemical industries and the internal-combustion engine are fouling our water and our air; the demand for materials and for energy is depleting and destroying the Earth's crust.  And this is all too easily blamed on "science" and "scientists" by those who do not quite under-stand that if knowledge can create problems, it is not through ignorance that we can solve them.
Yet modern science need not be so complete a mystery to non-scientists.  Much could be accomplished toward bridging the gap if scientists accepted the responsibility of communication-explaining their