13 - Analytical Index

This index consists of a list of the major themes and concepts which appear in The Dead Sea Scriptures. They are arranged in the following categories:

A. The Community
B. Government Of The Community
C. Laws And Practices
D. Opponents Of The Brotherhood
E. The Last Things (Eschatological Doctrines)
F. Angelology

Within each category the reader will find listed the topics relevant to it and where references to these topics occur in the scrolls themselves and elsewhere in ancient literature. The abbreviations used are as follows. These same abbreviations are used as well in the following index entitled BIBLICAL QUOTATIONS AND PARALLELS.

AL The Litany of the Angels

Am The Last Words of Amram

Blessings A Formulary of Blessings

C The City of God

CD The Coming Doom

D David (Psalm 151)

ET Epochs of Time

Ex [Exhortation.] Weal and Woe

F A 'Messianic' Florilegium

H The Book of Hymns

HabC The Commentary on Habakkuk

Hfr. Fragments from the Book of Hymns

HI The Hymn of the Initiants (=ManuaI, x-xi)

HosC The Commentary on Hosea

HT Hymns of Triumph

Inv. Invitation to Grace After Meals

IsaC The Commentary on Isaiah

L Lamentation for Zion

LJ The Last Jubilee [The 'Melchizedek Texts']

M The Manual of Discipline

MFC Manual of Discipline for the Future Congregation of Israel

MH Morning Hymn

MiC The Commentary on Micah

MP Memoirs of the Patriarchs

NC The New Covenant

O [Ordinances.] The Letter of the Law

Oration The Oration of Moses

PG Plea for Grace

Pl Prayer for Intercession

Ps 37C The Commentary on Psalm 37

Ps 45C The Commentary on Psalm 45

RB The Rout of Belial

Sp Supplication

W The War of the Sons of Light and the Sons of Darkness

WC The Wondrous Child

WH The Wiles of the Harlot

WW The Wooing of Wisdom (Sirach 51.13ff.)

Z The 'Zadokite? Document

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A. The Community

1. The Community as a whole is called 'the Congregation i.e., of Israel, of God (cf. Num. 27.12; 31.16, etc.)

M v.20; Z ix.15, 42; xi.1-2; xv.7; xvii.7; W ii.1, 3, 7; iii.4 11, etc.

The Heb. term is 'edah. This is usually rendered 'synagogue by the Septuagint. The cognate Syriac word was the technical term for 'the Church'; see Nestle, ZNTW, 1901: 263.

2. The Community is distributed over several 'encampments

Z vii.6; xii.22; xiii.4, 7, 13, 20; xiv. 3, 8-9; xix.2-3

As applied to the brotherhood at Qumran, the term not on! described their actual situation in the Desert of Judah, but also defined them as the 'army of God' about to fight the apocalyptic war against the forces of evil.

The building at Qumran is best regarded as the headquarters of the entire Brotherhood, possibly the place where it met for those annual conventions described in The Manual of Discipline. Its library would thus have comprised the literature of the entire movement, and not simply of a local 'chapter'.

3. The several 'chapters' are called 'communes' or 'cenobies'
(Heb. yahad).

M i.12, 16; ii 22, 24; vi.15, 24, 26; vii.6, 17, 18, 20, 23; viii.10, 11, 12, 16-17, 19, 22; ix.2, 5-6, 7, 10, 18-19; Z ix.39-40, 52-53, 70-71.

R. Marcus has pointed out (JBL 71 [1952], 207ff.) that Philo and Josephus use the comparable Greek term koinonia in speaking of the Essenes.

4. Another term is 'the corporation' (Heb. hibbur). Z xii.8

Such corporations (Heb. haburoth) of Pharisees are often mentioned in Talmudic literature.

5. The Community constitute 'the Elect.

M viii 6 ('elect of favor'); H ii.13 ('elect of righteousness')

The title expressed the fact that they were indeed the 'chosen' of God, pledged to the Covenant (cp. Isa. 65.9; Ps. 105.43, etc.). The title was adopted also by the early Christians: Mat. 24.22, 24; Mark 13.20, 22, 27; II Tim. 2.10; I Peter 1.1. Cp. also 'the elect of God', Luke 18.7; Rom. 8.33; Col. 3.12; Titus 1.1.

The Mandaeans likewise call themselves 'the Elect': Lidzbarski, Mandaische Liturgien, 75, 106f.; id., Johannesbuch, ii, 69, 102, 221. So, too, among the Manichaeans, the true followers of Mani are termed 'the Elect' (vicidagan).

6. They are 'those in the lot (portion) of God'.

M ii 2; W i 5; xiii.5; xvii.7

Cp Ignatius, Ad Eph., 3.8: 'that I may be found in the lot of the Christians at Ephesus'.
The opposite was 'those in the lot (portion) of Belial'.

7. They enjoy special 'illumination' and are designated 'Sons of Light'.

M i.9; iii.13, 24; W i.3, etc.; Z xiii.12 ('the portion of light'), LJ 8; RB i-iv.8; xii-xiii.7, 11.

The title was adopted also by the early Christians: Luke 16.8; John 12.36; I Thess. 5.5. Cp. also Enoch 108.11. Among the Mandaeans, 'sons of light' meant 'angels', with whom, indeed, the Illuminati claimed association: Lidzbarski, Mand. Lit., 18.24, 36. Cp. also Montgomery, Aram. Incantation Texts from Nippur (1913), i.9. Men predestined to eternal life were called likewise: Brandt, Mand. Schriften, 13.9. 'Light' is a common designation of the Torah in Biblical and later literature: cp. Pss. 19.9; 119.105; Prov. 6.23; Test. Levi 19; TB Berachoth 17a; Ex. Rabbah §36, etc.
(a) The illumination is an 'enlightenment of the countenance'

H iii.3; iv.5, 27; ix.26-27; Blessings iv.27

Cp. Odes of Solomon 41.6, 'Let our faces shine in His light'. (cp. also ib., 36.3)
(b) It is called 'Light-Perfection' (Heb. Or-Tom).

H iv.6, 23; xviii.29

An imitation of the Biblical Urim and Thummim, interpreted as 'lights and perfections'.
The idea may have originated with the Assidaeans (Hasidim, 'pious ones') of the Maccabean age, and have been based on Deut. 33.8-9.

On the concept of divine illumination, cp. John 1.19; Eph. 1.18; 3.9; Heb. 6.4; 10.22; II Cor. 3.4, 6.
For the idea in mysticism, cp. Jacopone da Todi, Lauda xci: 'Lume fuor di mesura Resplende nel mio core' (A light immeasurable Shines in my heart); see Underhill, Mysticism, 249-50.

8. Members of the Community are 'Sons of Truth'.

M iv.5-6; H vi.29; vii.30; ix.35; x.27; xi.11; W vii.8

8a. It is described as 'the House of Truth'.

M v.6; viii.9

9. Forms of Revelation:
(a) The Community is the recipient of God's 'truth'.

H i.27; ii.10; v.9, 26; vii.24; ix.4, 9, 10; W xiii.9-10, 12

In Jewish tradition, this 'truth' is often identified directly with the Torah (Law). So, too, in Mandaean thought, 'truth' (Kushta) is, virtually, mystic revelation; see W. Sundberg, Kushta (1953). In Samaritan, the Verity' (Qushtah) is a common term for the Law.
See also: Rom. 15.8; Gal. 2.5.
(b) this 'truth' is an esoteric doctrine.

H v.11, 25; ix.24; cp. M iv.6

Cp. Odes of Solomon 8.11: 'Keep My secret, ye who are kept by it'.
For a similar concept among the Mandaeans, cp. Right Ginza, iii.13; Brandt, Mand. Religion, 168.
(c) God has 'opened the ears' of the faithful.

H i.21; vi.4

(d) God has engraved the 'truth' on their hearts.

H xviii.27

(e) they are especially 'schooled' by God.

H ii.39; vii.14

Derived from Isa. 54.13. Cp. John 6.45; I Thess. 4.9.
(f) they possess the 'vision' of knowledge (or understanding).

H iv.18

On vision in mystic experience, see Underhill, op. cit., 279ff.
(g) they drank from the fountain of knowledge.

H ii.18; iv.11; v.26; 'fount of light', H vi.17

Derived from Ps. 36.10. Cp. Odes of Solomon 6.7f.; 30.1-2; H Baruch 59.7; IV Ezra 14.47; Enoch 48.1. St. Francis of Assisi gives the mystic chalice to John of Parma and other brethren: Fioretti, cap. 48. Mechthild of Magdeburg speaks of 'drinking for a space of the unmingled wine': Flieszende Licht der Gottheit, pt i, ch. 43. Blake declares, 'I am drunk with intellectual vision': Letters, ed. Brussel (1906), 171. See Underhill, op. cit., 235.
(h) they share the transcendental knowledge of God and angels.

M iv.22 ('knowledge of the Most High'); cp. H ii.3

Cp. Odes of Solomon 23.4: 'Walk ye in the knowledge of the Most High'.
(i) they have direct access to God, need no intermediary

H vi.13

(k) they ascend to the 'height of eternity'.

H iii.20; Blessings v.23

Cp. the familiar mystic symbol of the 'ascent'; W. R. Inge, Mysticism in Religion (1948), 80-82.
(l) God's 'power' is manifested in them (Heb. higbir).

H i.34; ii.24; iv.8, 23, 27, 28; v.15; W xvi.1

'Power' (Heb. geburah) is a common synonym for God it Rabbinic literature.

10. The members of the Community are styled 'volunteers (Heb. mithnadebim).

M v.l, 6, 8, 10, 21, 22; vi.13; MiC x.5

The term has a military connotation (cp. Ju. 5.9) and thus suggests the idea of an 'army of God'—the 'Onward, Christian soldiers' concept
Cp. I Mace. 2.42 (of the Hasidim); Didascalia Apostolorum, init.
In the mystery religions, the brotherhood of the Initiants often regarded itself as a militia: F. Cumont, Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism (1911), 213, n. 6.

11. The Community is called 'God's (eternal) plantation'.

H vi.15; viii.6, 10

Based on Isa. 60.21. Cp. Mishnah, Sanhedrin 1; Psalms of Solomon, 14.3-4; Enoch 93.2, 5, 10; Odes of Solomon 38.18-21 Mandaean: Right Ginza, II.iv. init; Mand. Liturg., 149.190 179ff., Apostolic Constitutions, init. Analogous is 'neophyte (KJV 'novice'; RSV 'recent convert') in I Tim. 3.6.

12. The Community forms one congregation with the celestial hosts ('communion of the saints').

M ii.25; xi.7-8; H iii.21; vi.14; xi.11-12; frag, ii.10

Cp. Enoch 43.104; Eph. 2.19.

13. Its members are driven from their native haunts.

H iv.8-9 ('like a sparrow from its nest')

Cp. Psalms of Solomon 17.15-16.
For an Iranian parallel, cp. Yasna 46.1: 'From nobles and from my peers they sever me, nor are the people pleased with me, nor the rulers of the land who follow the lie (Druj)'.

14. They are dwelling in a desert, or in 'the land of Damascus'.

Z vi.15, 19; vii.19; viii.21a; xx.12; W i.2-3

Based on Amos 5.25-27; not to be taken literally. It is not necessary to suppose that there was an actual migration from Qumran to Damascus, because this entire text may refer to an ideal community, rather than to the specific brotherhood beside the Dead Sea!
Like all mystics, the Covenanters oscillate between a keen sense of God's nearness and a despair at His seeming remoteness. Cp. John of the Cross, The Dark Night of the Soul, I ii, ch. 6: That which this anguished soul feels most deeply is the conviction that God has abandoned it ... cast it away into darkness ... It has also the same sense of abandonment with respect to all creatures, and that it is an object of contempt to all, especially to its friends' (cp. H v.25f.).

15. They are being tested and proven.

M viii.4; H v.!6f.; W xvii.1, 9; Ps 37C, b4; F ii.1

They are exposed to 'snares of wickedness', H v.8; to 'snares of corruption', H iii.26.
Cp. Underhill, op. cit., 385: Trials, taken en bloc, mean a disharmony between the self and the world with which it has to deal'.

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B. Government Of The Community

1. The formal Deliberative Council (Heb. 'esah).

M i.8, 10; ii.25; v.7; vi.12; vii.22; viii.5, 22; Z xx.24; MFC i-26, 27; ii.2, 9, 11

In the Syriac dialect of the early Christians of Palestine, the cognate term serves as the equivalent of Greek synhedrion; cp. F. Schwally, Idioticon (1893), 41f. A. Dupont-Sommer (The Jewish Sect of Qumran and the Essenes, 63) thinks that 'esah denoted the sect as a whole and that it may be the origin of the name Essenes!

2. Officers:
(a) 'Leader (Prince) of the Entire Congregation',

Z viii.7, 20; Blessings; MFC; W v.l

Cp. I Mace. 14.27 (of Simon). Yadin thinks this is the equivalent of the term ethnarch.
(b) 'Overseer of All the Camps'.

Z xiv.8-9

Virtually, 'archbishop'-albeit in a primitive sense. The 'leader of the entire congregation' and 'the overseer of all the camps' would have been officers of the entire fraternity.
(c) high priest
It is noteworthy that the high priest is mentioned only in texts concerned with the eventual state of the Restored Community, e.g., in the War of the Sons of Light and the Sons of Darkness and in The Manual of Discipline for the Future Congregation. This would suggest that the Brotherhood, while it condemned the venality of the hierarchy at Jerusalem, did not appoint its own 'antipope'. In Z xiv.7 there is, to be sure, mention of a 'priest who supervises the general membership', but this is not a high priest in the accepted sense, and it is significant that in M vi.14 the same officer is described simply as 'the supervisor' without reference to priestly status.
(d) priests

M i.18, 21; ii.l, 19; v.2; vi.3-4, 5, 8, 19; vii.2; viii.l; Z iii.21; iv.2; vii.1; ix.13, 15; xiii.2, 5, 7; xiv.3; xvi.44; W passim

(e) priests are called 'sons of Zadok'

M v.2; ix.14; Z iv.1; Blessings iii.22, etc.

It is not the community as a whole but solely its priests that are described in the Scrolls as 'sons of Zadok'. It derives directly from Ezek. 40.46; 43.19; 44.15; 48.11, and there is no need to look for a 'righteous teacher' named Zadok as the 'founding father' of the Brotherhood of Qumran in the days of the Second Commonwealth.
(f) courses of priests

W ii.4

(g) 'the priest anointed for war'

W xv.16

Cp. Mishnah, Sotah VIII, 2.
(h) the 'teacher of righteousness (Heb. m6reh zedeq).

Z i.11; vi.11; xx.l, 28, 32; MC ii.5 (on 1.5); Comm, on Ps. 37.24; HC i.13 (on 1.4); iL2 (on 1.4-5); v.10 (on 1.13); vii.4 (on 22); viii.3 (on 2.4); ix.10 (on 2.8); xi.5 (on 2.15); Ps 45C, 5.

The term means really 'the right guide', i.e., the true expounder of the Law; see General Introduction, pp. 6, 29f. There is no need to assume that all references refer consistently to a single historical figure. The title was later adopted by the Karaites. In Jewish usage, it is a common designation for a rabbi. Indeed, it is related that when Isaac Bernays was appointed to the chief rabbinate of Hamburg in 1821, he expressly rejected the title as having fallen into disrepute through repeated misuse! (i) teacher acts as 'father' to the brethren

Z xiii.9; H vii.20

Cp. Apostolic Constitutions ii.6, 7.
(k) three priests at head of community

M viii.1ff.

Modelled on the organization of Israel in the wilderness; cp. General Introduction, p. 11. (1) presbyters; the 'twelve perfect men'

M viii.1; Z [vii.5]; xx.25, 7

Modelled on the twelve tribal leaders during Israel's sojourn in the wilderness.
Cp. the Mandaean shalmana, Brandt, Mand. Religion, 74; Right Ginza, 3, etc. (Teleios in pagan mystery cults probably had a different meaning; see O. Gruppe, Griech. My-thologie, 1616, n. 1.)
Note also that among the Waldenses, advanced members of the brotherhood were called 'the perfect',
(m) judges

Z x.l, 4; xiv.13; xv.4, 16; xvi.19

Ten in number (Z x.4). Hence, cp. the courts of ten in Temple law: Mishnah, Sanhedrin I, 3.
(n) levites

M i.19, 22; ii.4, 11; Z iii.21; iv.3; x.5; xiii.3; xiv.4; W passim

(o) 'messiahs' (anointed)

M ix.11; Z vii.21a; xii.23; xiii.20; xiv.19; MFC

The usual expression is 'messiahs (or, messiah) of Aaron and Israel'. This has led to all kinds of wild speculation. But all it means is simply the anointed high priest and the anointed king'. (For 'messiah' as applied to the high priest, cp. Lev. 4.3; Mishnah, Shebu'oth i.7; Horayoth ii.l, etc. As the title of the king, cp. Ps. 18.51, etc.).
(p) 'overseer, inspector'

M vi.19-20; Z ix.18, 22; xiii.16, 17; xiv.11, 13; xv.14

Such 'overseers' served as executives of religious brotherhoods in Hellenistic times: cp. Inscr. Agora 63 IG, ii (2), 917 (181 B.C.); J. H. Oliver, in Amer. Journal of Philology 68 (1947), 148. Josephus mentions a similar officer among the Essenes. (q) 'overseer of the camp'

Z xiii.7, 13

(r) 'overseer of the general membership (lit the many)'

M vi.12; Z xv.8

(s) 'inspector' (Heb. paqid)

Z xiii.11; xiv.6

It is not quite clear whether the 'overseer' (mebaqqer) or the 'inspector' (paqid) more closely answers to the episkopos or 'bishop' of the early Church, for the Septuagint uses the Greek term to translate both of the Hebrew words. For episkopoi in the mystery cults, see A. Thieme, Inschriften, 17f., 32f.
(t) 'interpreter'

H ii.13; H fr.ii.6. 9

Cp. I Cor. 14.28.
(u) 'expositor' (Heb. doresh)

M vi.6; Z vi.7; vii.18; F i.11

Cp. Mishnah, Yoma i.6; Josephus, BJ II, viii.6, 19; Ant., XIII v.9, on 'expositors' among the Essenes.
(v) 'instructor' (Heb. maskil)

M iii.13; ix.12, 21; Blessings LI; iii.22; v.20; Z xii.21; xiii.22

Cp. Dan. 12.3, 10.
Literally, 'one who imparts insight, intelligence'. (It is probable that in the Scrolls the word has a causative sense, but it can also mean simply 'one who possesses insight'.)

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C. Laws And Practices

ablutions M iii.4f., 9; iv.21; v.13; Z x.10-13
atonement M viii.6-9; ix.4-14; H col. iv.
blasphemy M v.19; Z xv.1-5
calendar HI (=M x) 1-7
contamination Z xii.15-18
demoniacal possession Z xii.2-3
dietary laws Z xii.11-15
fraud M vii.6f.
lost property Z ix.11ff.
marriage Z iv.21-v.6
name of God M ii.6-7; Z xv.1-5
oath M v.8; Z ix.9-16
oath, abrogation of Z xv.6ff.
purity M vi. 16-22, 25; vii.3-16; viii.24
revenge M i.11; ii.6-9; iv.11; v.2-25; Z ix.2-8
sabbath Z X.14-xi.l8
sacrifices M ix.4-5
sanctuary, defilement of Z xi.l8-xii.2
slaves (servants) Z xii.11
testimony Z ix.17-x.3
vows M v.8; Z xvi.13

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D. Opponents Of The Brotherhood

1. Belial and his forces

M i.18, 23-24; Z iv.13, 15; v.18; viii.2; xii.2; W passim; RB passim.

Cp. Or. Sib., ii.165f.; Jubilees i.20; Testament of Reuben ii, of Levi, iii; of Zebulun, ix; of Naphtali, ii; of Benjamin, vi; Called 'spirit of darkness': Test. Levi xix; Joseph vii, xx. Cp. also Mat. 24.5-12; II Tim. 3.1f.; II Cor. 5.15; Didache 21.3.

2. 'Children of Corruption'

Z vi.15; xiii.14

Cp. Jub. 10.3; 15.26; John 17.12; II Thess. 2.3; Gospel of Nico-demus 20.
The expression may have been derived from Deut. 32.5. (Cp also Isa. 1.4.)

2a. 'Men of Corruption'

M ix.16, 22; x.19

3. 'Sons of Darkness'

M i.10; W i.l, 7, 10, 16; iii.6, 9; xiii.16; xiv.17, etc.

Cp. Montgomery, Aram. Incantation Texts from Nippur (1913), 16.7, where the epithet characterizes demons (like Arabic jinn).

4. 'Builders of a rickety wall'

Z iv.19; viii.12, 18

Derived from Ezek. 13.10.

5. 'Prophets of deceit (delusion)'

H iv.10, 20

Cp. in Mandaean, Right Ginza II, i.107 (tr. Lidzbarski, p. 43)

6. 'False prophets'

H iv.16

Cp. Mat. 7.15; 24.11, 24; Mark 13.22; Luke 6.26; Acts 13.6 II Peter 2.1; I John 4.1. Mandaean, Right Ginza H, i.107. H v.26: They that alter the works of God by propounding sinful mysteries'.
By 'prophets' the writers meant simply 'teachers', as in I Cor.12.28; 14.29.

7. 'Lying (deceitful) interpreters'

H ii.31; iv.9-10. Cp. also H ii.14

8. 'Seekers after smooth things'

H ii.15, 32; Z i.18; NaC 2, 7

9. 'The froward' (Heb. helka'im).

H iii.25-26; iv.25, 35

Derived from Ps. 10.10 (where, however, the meaning is uncertain).

10. 'Furtive men, dissemblers' (Heb. na'alamim).

H iii.28; iv.13; vii.34 Derived from Ps. 26.4.

11. Specific Opponents:
(a) 'Man of lies'

Z xx. 15; HabC ii.2; v.11

Rabin cps. II Thess. 2.3.
(b) 'Preacher of Lies'

Z viii.13

The Heb. means properly, 'Dribbler of lies', in reference to Mic. 2.6, 11.
(c) 'Man of Scoffing'

Z i.14; xx.11 (pl.)

Cp. Isa. 28.14; Prov. 29.8.
(d) 'Men of Scoffing who are in Jerusalem'

IsaC, b ii.6, 10; cp. Z xx.11

(e) 'House of Absalom'

HC v.9

For the interpretation, see above, p. 29.
(f) 'House of Peleg'

Z xx.22

A concocted name. Heb. p-l-g means 'divide'. Hence, the meaning is, 'devisive elements'.
(g) 'The Wicked Priest'

HabC viii.3; ix.9; xi.4

(h) 'The Lion of Wrath'

NaC 5, 6

Perhaps intended to convey the idea of 'the Lion of the Era of Wrath'; see below, E. 1.
Cp. Slavonic Enoch 56.5: They (the heathen kings) will break forth as lions from their lairs ... and go up and tread under the land of the elect'.

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E. Past And Future

(Theory of History and Eschatological Doctrines)

1. History divided into 'Era of Wrath (Sin, Wickedness)' and 'Era of Favor'
(a) 'Era of Wrath'

Z i.5; H iii.28; frag, i.5; HosC, b i.12

Cp. Zeph. 1.5 ('Day of Wrath'), and cp. Talmud, B.B. 10a, Shab. Ha; Ab.Zar. 18b, for 'Wrath' as an eschatological term. Cp. also Ecclus. 48.10.
(b) 'Era of Wickedness'

Z vi.10, 14; xii.23; xiv.19; xv.7, 10; xx.23 ('Era of Perfidy')

Cp. Enoch 22.12; 80.2.
(c) 'Era of Favor'

H xv.15; frag, ix.8; NC

Cp. Isa. 61.2 ('Year of favor'). The Samaritans likewise divide history into the 'Era of God's Turning Away' (Fanutah) and that of His 'Favor' (Rahutah).

2. Requital:
(a) 'The Final Era' (Heb. qes).

M iii.23; iv.18, 25; Z iv.9, 10; xix.10; xx.15; HC vii.2
(b) 'Time of Visitation Inquisition' (Heb. pequdah)

M iii.18; iv.18-19, 26

(c) Final Judgment

M iv.20

(d) 'Day of Requital'

M is.23

Based on Deut. 32.35, read as in LXX and Samaritan text.
(e) Spirits and angels also will be judged

H vii.29

(f) 'Messianic Travail'

Hymn No. 5, passim

For the expression 'pangs of the Messiah', cp. Talmud, Shab. 118a; Sank 98b; Mat. 24.8; Mark 13.8-9; I Thess. 5.3. Cp. also Enoch 62.4.
Described: Jubilees 20.11-25; Or. Sib. ii.154f.; II Esdras v-vi; Mat 24.6-29; Rev. chs. 6-9; Talmud, Sanh. 96b 97a.
(g) Conflagration (Ekpyrosis)

H iii.29ff.; W xiv.17. Cp. also M ii.8

Cp. Mal. 3.19 (4.1); Dan. 7.10f.; Psalms of Solomon I5.14f.; Enoch 67.6; 98.3; 108.3; Test. Zebulun 2.38; Or. Sib., ii.253f., 296; iii.542, 689; iv.176; Luke 17.28; II Peter 3.6ff.; II Thess. 1.7f.; Rev. 19.20; 20.10, 14f.; 21.8. Berosus (quoted in Seneca, Nat Qu. ii.29, 1) predicted a final conflagration.
On non-Semitic parallels, cp. C. Clemen, Primitive Christianity and Its Non-Jewish Sources (1912), 161f.; M. Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return (1954), 87-88; R. Mayer, 1st die biblische Vorstellung vom Weltenbrand eine Entlehnung aus dem Parsismus? (1947).
(h) Messianic Era of Forty Years

Ps 37C, a7

Cp. Apoc. Esdras xiii.23-25; Talmud, Sanh. 99a; Midrash Tehillim xc, §393. Possibly based on Ps. 95.10 (cp. Yalqut Shime'oni in loc.).
(i) War against Belial, Gog, etc.

H iii.35f.; vi.29ff.; x.34-35; W passim (especially, i.10, 13-14)

Cp. Test. Levi, v.27; of Dan. ii. 10-11; John 12.31; II Cor. 6.15.
Gog and Magog: Isa. 25.6; Zech. 14.2. Cp. Or. Sib. iii.319, 519, 632f.; v.101; Syriac Apoc. Baruch 70.7-10; Pal. Targum to Num. 9.6; 24.17; Enoch 56; 90.16; Assum. Mosis 8.Iff.; II Esdras 5.6; 13.33f.; Mishnah, 'Eduyoth ii.10. The basic notion occurs already in Theopompus quoted by Plutarch, De Is., 47.

ablution after victory W xiv.3
cavalry W vi.g-17
exhortation before battle W xv.6ff.
prayer before battle W x.2-xiv.2
Prayer, high priest's, before battle W xv.4-6
priests, role of W vii.9fL
song of return W xlv.2
song of victory W xiv.2-18
standards, military W iii.12-v.2
testudo ('tower') W ix.l0ff.
troops, age of W vii.1-9
trumpets W col.iii.
trumpet signals W vii.9-ix.9
weapons, described W v.2-vi.6

(k) Other Disasters:

(i) shafts of perdition loosed H iii.16, 27
(ii) doors of perdition opened H iii.18; vi.24
(iii) traps of perdition sprung H iii.24
(iv) dispersal of wicked H iv.26

3. Rewards:

(a) Renewal (Rebirth) of the World

M iv.25; H xf.13-14; xiii.11-13

Cp. Test Abraham; Jubilees i.29; Enoch. 72.1; IV Ezra 5.45; Mat 19.28; Jewish 'Burial Kaddish'; Manichaean: F. W. K. Muller, Handschriftenreste, ii.15 (employing the Iranian term frasagard).
Renewal (rebirth) is also an element of mystical experience; cp. George Fox, Journal, ed. N. Penny (1911), I, ch. ii. 'Now was I come up in spirit through the Flaming Sword into the Paradise of God. All things were new'.
(b) Eternal Peace

M ii.4; H xi.27; xv.16; xviii.30; Blessings iii.5, 21

(c) Sevenfold Light

H vii.24-25

Cp. Talmud, Sanhedrin 91b (sevenfold Messianic sun); Midrash Konen 24-25 (based on Isa. 30.26). Cp. also Isa, 60.19; Rev. 21.23, 25; 22.6; Odes of Solomon, 21.5; Slav. Enoch 66.8.
(d) Prophetic Forerunner of Messianic Age

M ix.11; RB, passim; WC, passim. Based on Deut. 18.18 and Mal. 3.23ff. (Cp. Ecclesiasticus 48.10.) Samaritans identify him with Moses Redivivus; Jews, with Elijah (Talmud, Menahoth 45a; B.M. 3a; Aboth de Rabbi Nathan 24.4).
Cp. I Mace. 14.41; 4.46; Mat. 11.14; 17.10ff.; Mark 9.11f.; John 1.45; 5.46; 6.14; 7.40; Acts 7.37; Rev. 11.3ff. Often alternates with priestly forerunner. (Note that both Moses and Elijah were priests.) Cp. Test Levi, v.13-20; Heb. 3.1; 4.15ff.; 5.4, 10; 6.20.
(e) Messianic 'Star'

Z vii.18

Based on Num. 24.17. Cp. Test. Levi, v.15; Judah, iv.20; Samaritan Liturgy, ed. Cowley, ii.88; Heh 10; 92.17; 96.32 (all by Abisha b. Pinehas, d. 1376).
(f) 'Faithful Shepherd' will arise

NC 3, 2, 8

Based on Isa. 63.11. Cp. Heb. 13.20. 'Shepherd of souls': I Peter 2,25. Cp. also John 10.11, 14; I Peter 5.4. Enoch 90.17-27 speaks of God as the Master Shepherd who will deliver his flock from the seventy evil shepherds.
(g) New Covenant will be concluded

NC 2, 6

Based on Jer. 31.32-33. For the true meaning, see above, pp. 4, 23. The Covenant will be inscribed on human hearts: H xviii.27. Cp. Jer. 31.33; Rom. 2.14f. (Stoic parallel adduced in Feine, Der Romerbrief [1903], 95ff.)
(h) God records deeds of men for reward or punishment

H i.23-24; xvi.l0; RB v-vi.11.

Cp. Dan. 7.10; II Esdras 6.20; Rev. 20.12; Slavonic Enoch 50.1; Odes of Solomon 9.12; Apoc. Baruch 24.1. Rabbinic parallels in L. Ginzberg, Legends of the Jews, v.128, n. 141.
Iranian parallel: Yasna 31.13-14; 32.6 (record kept by Ahura Mazda).
(i) Righteous will acquire crown of glory

M iv.7; H ix.24

Odes of Solomon 9.11; I Peter 5.4; Mandaean: Lidzbarski, Mand. Lit., 4f., 29, 108, 177, 243, 267. Initiants in mystery cults sometimes received a crown: Apuleius, Met. xi.24; Tertullian, Cor. 15a; Praescr. haer. 40. Was this a prefiguration of the heavenly crown which awaited them?
(j) Righteous will acquire robe of majesty

M iv.8

Cp. Enoch 62.16; Slavonic Enoch 22.8.
(k) Righteous will unite in triumphant song

H xi.5, 14, 26

Cp. TB Sanhedrin 19b: 'All the prophets will then intone a song in concert'; Yalqut, Isa. 296.
Iranian parallel: Bundahesh 31.
(1) Future Community will be the true temple of God

M viii.5f.; F i.6

Cp. I Cor. 3.16-17; Eph. 2.20-22. Cp. also Heb. 8.2; Barnabas, 3.12.

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F. Angelology

See in general the writer's article, 'Angel' in The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible.

1. General names for angels:
(a) 'divine being'

Heb. elim: H x.8; frag, ii.3, 10; W i.10, 11; xiv.15, 16; xv.14; xvii.7; Oration iv.l; AL (a) 2, 5, 10

Heb. elohim: AL (b) 5, 7
(b) 'holy ones'

Z xx.8; H iii.22; iv.25; x.35; xi.12; W xii.4, 7, 8; xviii.2; Oration iv.l, etc.

Cp. Enoch, passim.
(c) 'host of heaven'

H iii.35; W vii.6; xii.l, 8, 9

(d) 'host of the holy ones'

H iii.22; x.34-35. Cp. 'host of angels', W xii.8

(e) 'eternal host'

H xi.13

(f) 'communion of the holy ones'

H iv.25; frag, lxiii.2

Derived from Ps. 89.8(7).
(g) 'sons of heaven'

H iii.22; frag, ii.10; W iv.22; xi.8

Cp. Enoch 6.2; 13.8; 14.3.
(h) 'stalwarts' (Heb. gibbore koah)

H viii.11; x.34-35. (Cp. W v.21; iii.35-36; AL (a) 5)

Derived from Ps. 103.20.
(i) 'glorious ones'

H x.8

Cp. Enoch 24.6 (Charles); Slavonic Enoch 21.3; 22.9.

2. Classes of angels:
(a) seven archangels

AL (a). Called 'arch-princes'; cp. Ezek. 38.2; 39.1.

Cp. Tobit 12.15; Enoch 20.1-8; 21; 81.5; 90.21-22; Test. Levi 8.1; Luke 1.19, 26; Rev. 1.4; 8.2; Hermas, Sim. 9.31; Hechaloth, c.iv.
(b) 'angels of the presence'

H vi.13; Blessings iv.25-26; AL (b) 1

Cp. Enoch 104.1; Slavonic Enoch 21.1; Jubilees 1.27, 29; Test. Levi 3.5, 7, and very frequently in rabbinic literature.
(c) 'ministering angels'

H v.21; xii.23; xv.24; frag, ii.14; AL (a) 1

Cp. Heb. 1.14. The morning Yoser-prayer in the Jewish liturgy mentions the 'holy ones' and the 'ministering angels' as standing 'at the crest of the world', singing praises and 'receiving each from each the yoke of the kingdom of heaven' (Singer, p. 38).
(d) 'angels of sanctification'

M vii.6; x.11; H i.11; Oration ii.8; Blessings iii.6; AL (a)

(e) Cherubim AL (a)

Derived directly from Ezek. 10. Cp. also Enoch 14.16-17; 71.7; Slavonic Enoch 21.1.

3. Particular angels:

(a) Prince of Lights M iii.20
(b) Angel of Darkness M iii.20-21
(c) Angel of Truth M iii.24
(d) Mastemah Z iv. 13; v. 18; vii.2; xvi.5

Cp. Jubilees 49.2. The name is related to Satan.

4. Protective angels:

(a) Gabriel W ix.16
Cp. Ginzberg, Legends, v.21. Origen. De princip., i.81, says that Gabriel is the angel of war.
(b) Michael M ix.15, 16; xvii.6, 7
Cp. Dan. 10.21; Rev. 12.7; Jude 9; Ginzberg, op. cit., v.4.
(c) Raphael M ix.15
(d) Sariel (or Uriel) W ix.15
Gabriel and Michael are mentioned also in a fragmentary text from Qumran provisionally entitled The Book of Noah; D. Barthelemy and J. T. Milik, Discoveries in the Judean Desert, I (1955), 84-86.

5. Angels possess transcendental knowledge

M iv.22; H iii.23; frag, xiii.23; AL (a) 1

Cp. Slavonic Enoch 22.11; TB Hagigah 16a. Michael, Uriel and Raguel initiate Enoch into the 'mysteries of the world': Jubilees 4.21; Enoch 40.4-5. Michael tells Adam and Eve the mysteries of creation: Apoc. Mosis 3.13.

6. Angels sing praises in heaven

H ix.13; AL (a) passim

They sing the Trisagion: Isa. 6.2-3; cp. Enoch 39.12f.; Slavonic Enoch 8.8; 17.1; 19.6; 20.3; 21.1; 22.3; 31.If.; 42.4; TB Hullin 14a. See also S. Baer, Abodath Israel, 120; Apoc. Paul, 10.
On the liturgy of the angels, cp. Apoc. Mosis 17; Test. Abraham B, iv; Pal. Targum, Gen. 32.27; Ex. 14.24; S. Singer, Authorized Daily Prayerbook, 38, 45, 160.

7. Angels participate in the eschatological war

H iii.35f.; vi.29f.; x.34-35; W xv.14

Based on Zech. 14.3, 5. Cp. also Test. Levi 1.19

8. Evil Spirits:

(a) 'angels of destruction'

M iv.12; Z ii.6; W xiii.12; xiv.10

Cp. Enoch 53.3; 56.1; TB Shabbath 88a, and often. The Samaritans speak similarly of 'angels of perturbation' (mala'che rigzah).
(b) 'solans'

H frags, iv.6; xlv.3; Blessings i.8

(c) 'ruinous spirit (Heb. mashhith)

H frags, iv.6; xlv.3

Derived from Ex. 12.13, as popularly interpreted.

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