9 - Visions And Testaments (The Last Words of Amram)

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Introduction

A distinctive genre of Jewish literature in the Graeco-Roman period was the fictitious testament, or deathbed exhortation, of an ancestral worthy or religious leader, usually combined with a prophecy of what was yet in store for his heirs. (1) The parade examples of this genre are The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (sons of Jacob), constituent portions of which have indeed turned up at Qumran; and to this category too belongs the curious text presented in the following pages. Composed in Aramaic (the vernacular tongue), all that now remains of it are a few sorry fragments derived from four copies, and even these have not yet been published in their entirety. Any comprehensive interpretation can therefore be but tentative and provisional.

The central theme of the text is a dream-vision seen by Amram, the father of Moses, on the day of his death, (2) and his consequent admonitions to his sons. What Amram sees are two otherworldly beings representing respectively the Prince of Light and the Prince of Darkness—virtual personifications of the good and evil inclinations in man. They are engaged in an altercation about him, and he is invited to choose between them.

The underlying notion that human life is in fact a struggle between these two forces is well attested elsewhere. (3) We have met it already in The Manual of Discipline (iii.13-iv.26; above, p. 48), and allusions to it are to be found in The Testament of Asher (i-iv), in the Visions (v.6) and Mandates (ii.12) of Hermes Pastor, in the Slavonic Book of Enoch (xix.5), in sundry passages of the Talmud (Ber. 60b; Sheb. 119b; Ta'an. 11a), and-at a far later date—in the apocryphal Apocalypse of Paul (xiv-xvii) (4) and in The Book of Angels current among the Falashas of Ethiopia. (5)

The Jews, for their part, probably adopted it from Iranian lore, but it is not in fact confined to Judaeo-Christian literature. Censorinus, the Roman scholar of the third century C.E., tells us that it was held by Euclides of Megara, a disciple of Socrates, (6) and it is the theme of the famous apologue of 'Heracles at the Cross-roads' attributed to the Sophist Prodicus and related at length in Xenophon's Memorabilia (II, 1.21-34). (7) In our present text, however, a new twist is introduced (as again in the Apocalypse of Paul) in the fact that the two spirits contend over a man's soul on the day of his death and that they invite Amram to choose between them.

In the Epistle of Jude (verse 9) there is a reference to the legend that the angel Michael contended with the Devil for the body of Moses, (8) and this legend is mentioned also in the Slavonic Life of Moses, (9) in a statement by Severus, Patriarch of Antioch (542 C.E.), quoted in the Catena of Nicephorus (on Deut ch. 34), in the later rabbinic Midrash known as The Demise of Moses (Petirath Mosheh) (10) and in the apocryphon entitled The Testament of Abraham (ch. xvii). At first blush it might seem that what is related in our text is simply a variation of that legend.

The comparison, however, is utterly misleading, for what is implied in those works is really something quite different, viz., the resistance offered by a benign angel to the attempt of Death (acting, to be sure, under orders from God) to snatch away the body of a preeminently righteous and virtuous man. There is no question of a choice between good and evil offered to the dying.

On the other hand, it would appear that our text was indeed known to Origen (185-254 C.E.), for in his Thirty-fifth Homily, on Luke 12.58-59, as translated by Jerome in 389-90 C.E., he speaks of angels struggling for the soul of Abraham, and J. T. Milik has argued persuasively that Abraham is there, in all probability, a corruption of (*) Ambram, a frequent distortion of Amram! (11)

A word may be added on what might otherwise seem a puzzling feature of our text, namely, that both of the angels (or spirits) have the grim face of a reptile. To be sure, for purposes of the story, both would have to look alike; otherwise there could be no real choice between them.

In Prodicus' apologue, however, and again in The Testament of Abraham, the evil one disguises itself in fair colors, whereas here just the opposite is the case; the good one wears the mien of his sinister opponent, who is indeed described elsewhere as possessing the face of a reptile. (12) The only difference between them is that the good one is light, and the evil one dark. The virtuous Amram, however, is 'tipped off by the former, and by reason of that information and of his own innate proclivity toward goodness is able, evidently, to make the right choice!

The Admonitions (preserved in a supplementary fragment) play, in a hortatory vein, on the same distinction between the 'light' and the 'dark', matching their ultimate fate with their character. It is perhaps possible to detect in the descriptions the influence of Iranian lore. (The correspondences are pointed out in the notes to the text.)

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Notes

1. On the widespread notion that the dying are prescient, see T. H. Gaster, Myth, Legend, and Custom in the Old Testament (1969) §74.

2. The dream-vision in classical literature is familiar especially from Cicero's Somnium Scipionis. It became a standard device of medieval writers, as witness Dante's Divina Commedia, Langland's Piers Plowman and Pearl. 'Dream', as Brian Stone has observed (Medieval English Verse [Penguin Classics, 1964], p. 138), 'was out of consciousness and therefore an extension of the mind beyond life'.

3. See: S. Schechter, Aspects of Rabbinic Theology (1909), pp. 241-63; G. F. Moore, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era (repr. 1971), i.483ff.; F. C. Porter, in Biblical and Semitic Studies (Yale Bicentennial Publications, 1902), pp. 98-107; H. L. Strack and P. Billerbeck, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrash, iv (1928), pp. 466-68; W. D. Davies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism (2) (repr. 1967), pp. 21ff. On this doctrine in the Dead Sea Scriptures, see: H. W. Huppenbauer, Der Mensch zwischen zwei Welten (1959); J. Licht, in Scripta Hierosolymitana 4 (1958), pp. 88-100; O. J. F. Seitz, in New Testament Studies 6 (1960), pp. 82-95; P. Wernberg-M011er, in Revue de Qumran 3 (1961-62), 413-41; M. Treves, ibid., 449-52.

4. Translated in M. R. James, The Apocryphal New Testament (1924), pp. 531ff.

5. J. Halevy, ed., Taazaze Sanbat (1902), pp. 173f.; W. Leslau, Falasha Anthology (1951), pp. 52f.

6. Censorinus, iii.3.

7. The apologue is said to have formed part of Prodicus' work, Horai. K. Joel (Socrates, iii, i, 125f.), however, attributes it to Antisthenes; see W. C. Greene, Moira (1944), pp. 242f. On the idea in general in Classical thought, see: P. Boyan6, in Revue de Philologie 9 (1935), 189ff., R. B. Onians, The Origins of European Thought About the Body, etc. (1951), p. 265.

8. Origen and others say that this was taken from the pseudepigraphic Assumption of Moses, but it is not found in the extant, albeit incomplete, Latin version of that work.

9. Edited by R. Bonwetsch in Gottingen Nachrichten, 1900, 58If. So too in the Byzantine Palaea; see Vassiliev, in Anecdota Graeco-Byzantina (1893), p. 247; M. R. James, op. cit., p. 47.

10. A. Jellinek, Seth ha-Midrash, vi (1878), 71f.; J. D. Eisenstein, Osar Midrashim (1915), ii.361f. On the later survival of this legend, see M. Asin Palacios, Islam and the Divine Comedy (1926), pp. 221f.

11. J. T. Milik, in Revue Biblique 79 (1972), 91f.

12. See L. Ginzberg, Legends of the Jews, ii.195; v.101, 123; Testament of Abraham, xvii; Gabriel too sometimes takes this form: Ginzberg, op. cit., v.423. Possibly, the author was influenced also by the popular notion of the two celestial assessors who present to God the cases for the prosecution and defense of a dying man, for these are commonly portrayed as both possessing a grim aspect.

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The Last Words Of Amram

Transcript of the text (1) relating the vision of Amram, son of Kehath, son of Levi—all that he revealed to his sons and that he enjoined upon them on the day he died in (his) one hundredth and sixty-sixth year; (2) the year of his death being the one hundredth and fifty-second since Israel made its departure into Egypt.

In a dream I had a vision; two beings were disputing about me and exchanging words and holding a fierce argument.

'Who are you', I asked them, 'that you should be [arguing and wrangling] in this way over me?' 'We', they replied, 'are [the two powers that have been given r]ule, and indeed wield it, over all mankind'. 'Which of us', they continued, 'do you [choose ]?'

I raised my eyes and looked them over. [The one] of them had a terrifying mien like an asp. (3) His r[ai]ment was deepdyed, and (he himself) very dark. (4)

Then I looked at the other. He was [ ] of mien, with the face of a viper, and [ ], and all his eyes were [ ]. (5)

[I turned to the latter of the two. 'What', I asked, 'is the matter of your dispute?']

'[Each of us', he replied, 'is out to claim] rule over you [in this hour of your death]'. (6)

'[But] who', [I pursued,] 'is this unearthly being (7) (standing beside you)?'

'This unearth[ly being]', he rejoined, 'is [one who operates under several guises: to wit, as ..., as ...] and as the King of Wickedness'. (8)

'Sir', said I, 'what is [his] name?'

'[His name', came the answer, 'is Belial (?). (9) His every thought is dark]ling, and d[ar]kling his every act, and in darkness he [walk]s. (10) [That is why he himself is dark, as] you see. He has been given rule over all that is dark, whereas I [have been given it over all that is light By the command of Him Who wields sway] alike above and below. I am he that bears rule over all that is light and all that is [ ]. I bear it, to boot, over (every) man [that ], and (so) I bear it [over all the sons of light]'.

(Thereupon) I asked him, '[ ]. [Under what] names do you go?' (*)

'Of my three names', [he rep]lied, '[the first is ... , and the second.., and the third. . .]'. (11)

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[The Admonitions]

... I hereby make [kn]own [unto you. More]over, I make known [to you] in sooth [that all the sons of light] will (hereafter) abide (†) in light, (12) [while all the sons of] darkness will abide in darkness; (13) [that, because of all the knowledge (14) which is theirs, [the sons of light will be like a robe without tear or spot], while the sons of darkness will be [like soiled patches] cut away; (15) that, (since) all folly and wicked[ness] (16) are things of [darkness], while all [probi]ty and truth [are] things of light, [all the sons of light will go (hereafter) ] into light, into joy [everlasting and into] renewal, (17) while all the sons of dark[ness] will go [into darkness, hell (and)] perdition; [that (hereafter)] enlightenment [will come] to the People, (18) and [God] will reveal [ ].

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[*] Literally, '[What are] your names?'
[†] Literally, 'be'.

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Notes

1. The initial words of the title correspond to the formula which introduces several of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs.

2. This agrees with the Samaritan text of Exod. 6.20—a reading found also in the Codex Alexandrinus of the Greek (Septuagint) Version. The Masoretic text has 'the one hundred and sixty seventh', and other LXX manuscripts 'the one hundred and sixty second'.

3. Perhaps this refers more specifically to their terrifying stare. Compare Euripides' description of serpents as 'gorgon-eyed' (Hercules Furens, 1266). In a tablet from Asshur (7th cent. B.C.) describing Prince Kummiya's journey to the netherworld, he sees the demonic 'Death' (d Mu-u-[tu]) with the head of a dragon (mushhushshu), two human hands, and two serpent-twined feet; E. Ebeling, Tod und Leben, I (1931), p. 5; A. Heidel, The Gilgamesh Epic and Old Testament Parallels3 (1949), p. 133; E. A. Speiser, in ANET, 109a-110b.

4. The idea that the Evil One is dark or black recurs elsewhere, e.g., Epistle of Barnabas, 4.9; Apocryphal Acts of Thomas, ch. 33; of Andrew, ch. 22; Pistis Sophia, Coptic text, 637; Paris Magical Papyrus, 1238-39. So too in German folklore: J. Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, tr. F. Stallybrass (repr. 1966), 993. In Gaelic he is known as 'Black Donald', and in English proverbs is likened to a collier: Samuel Butler, Hudibras, ii.350; Notes and Queries, III.v (1864), 282, 389.

5. In view of the defective state of the text it is impossible to determine whether these words refer to only one of the two spirits or (as Milik thinks) to both. In Talmud, 'Abodah Zarah 20b, Death is said to have several eyes; while in Revelation 4.6 the four 'Creatures' who surround the heavenly throne are 'covered with eyes'.

6. The supplements in this paragraph are purely conjectural, based on the fact that it is the Prince of Lights that describes his adversary, rather than the latter speaking for himself. Perhaps in the intervening gap Amram actually made his choice.

7. The Aramaic word is ir, the name of a class of celestial beings both in Daniel and in the Qumran Memoirs of the Patriarchs. Whatever the word may originally have meant (v. T. H. Gaster, in IDB, s.v. Watcher), it was popularly taken to denote 'Watcher' (as though from the root '-w-r, 'be awake'), and is so understood in Enoch, where it is paraphrased (61.12), 'sleepless ones'.

8. The opposite of Melchizedek, i.e., 'King of Righteousness'. Milik says (hi Journal of Jewish Studies 23 [1972], 127f.) that in the yet unpublished Qumran text, 4Q 280.2, the name occurs in a commination-formula parallel to that in Manual, col. ii, where it is applied to Belial.

9. Restored ad sensum from Manual, col. ii.

10. Cp. Manual, ibid.

11. In Talmud, Baba Bathra 16», R. Simon ben Lakish (c. 200-75 C.E.) is reported as saying that the Evil Inclination (Yeser Ra') has two other names, viz. Satan and the Angel of Death. (This view is included also in the rabbinic florilegium, Pirqe Rabbenu ha-Qadosh = J. D. Eisenstein, ed., Oscar he-Midrashim [1915], ii.510a 1.) Cp. the similar statement in King James the First's Demonologie (1597), 76: '[That same devil] illudes the necromancers with innumerable feigned names for him and his angels, as in special, making Satan, Beelzebub and Lucifer to be three sundry spirits, where we find the two former, but diverse names given to the Prince of all the rebelling angels by the Scripture. ... Even so, I say, he deceives the witches by attributing to himself diverse names; as if every diverse shape that he transforms himself in Were a diverse kind of spirit'. Cp. also Shakespeare, Mac. beth, II.iii, 'Who's there, i' the name of Beelze-bub? ... Who's there, in the other devil's name'-which some commentators take to mean, in the Devil's other name.

12. See Analytical Index, E. 3 (c). The notion may re. fleet the influence of Iranian lore, for the expression corresponds to the 'endless light' (anaghra raochah) mentioned in Yasht xxii.15; xxiv.61 as the future destination of the righteous.

13. Cp. Manual, ii.8. This too has an Iranian ring, for it corresponds to the 'endless darkness' (anaghra temah) mentioned in Yasht xxii.33, etc., as the future destination of the wicked.

14. I.e., inner knowledge, gnosis—in contrast to the folly' of the wicked.

15. Reading, with Milik, ytqdn, which means, however, 'cut away', rather than 'cut down'. The word is used in the Syriac Bible (Lev. 13.56) to denote the cutting out of a stained patch from the garment of a man not yet completely recovered from skin disease. The picture intended by our author may thus have been that the righteous will be like a clean garment, white and unstained (cp. Dan. 12.10), whereas the wicked, themselves 'sons of darkness', will be like the dark patch, symbolic of lingering impurity, which had then to be cut out; the implication being, of course, that they will be severed from the community of Israel.

16. Cp. Eccles. 7.25.

17. See Analytical Index, E. 3 (e). This suggests the Iranian frashokereti.

18. See above, n. 12. Cp. also Isa. 9.1; 58.8; 60.1, 19-20; Manual, iv.8.

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