                                         500 BC
                                    BUDDHA, THE WORD
                                  (The Eightfold Path)

                             THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

      THUS has it been said by the Buddha, the Enlightened One: It is
    through not understanding, not realizing four things, that I,
    Disciples, as well as you, had to wander so long through this round of
    rebirths. And what are these four things? They are the Noble Truth
    of Suffering, the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering, the Noble
    Truth of the Extinction of Suffering, the Noble Truth of the Path that
    leads to the Extinction of Suffering.
      As long as the absolutely true knowledge and insight as regards
    these Four Noble Truths was not quite clear in me, so long was I not
    sure, whether I had won that supreme Enlightenment which is
    unsurpassed in all the world with its heavenly beings, evil spirits
    and gods, amongst all the hosts of ascetics and priests, heavenly
    beings and men. But as soon as the absolutely true knowledge and
    insight as regards these Four Noble Truths had become perfectly
    clear in me, there arose in me the assurance that I had won that
    supreme Enlightenment unsurpassed.
      And I discovered that-profound truth, so difficult to perceive,
    difficult to understand, tranquilizing and sublime, which is not to be
    gained by mere reasoning, and is visible only to the wise.
      The world, however, is given to pleasure, delighted with pleasure,
    enchanted with pleasure. Verily, such beings will hardly understand
    the law of conditionality, the Dependent Origination of every thing;
    incomprehensible to them will also be the end of all formations, the
    forsaking of every substratum of rebirth, the fading away of
    craving; detachment, extinction, Nirvana.
      Yet there are beings whose eyes are only a little covered with dust:
    they will understand the truth.
                                 FIRST TRUTH
                         THE NOBLE TRUTH OF SUFFERING

      WHAT, now, is the Noble Truth of Suffering?
      Birth is suffering; Decay is suffering; Death is suffering;
    Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain, Grief, and Despair, are suffering; not to
    get what one desires, is suffering; in short: the Five Groups of
    Existence are suffering.
      What, now, is Birth? The birth of beings belonging to this or that
    order of beings, their being born, their conception and springing into
    existence, the manifestation of the groups of existence, the arising
    of sense activity-this is called Birth.
      And what is Decay? The decay of beings belonging to this or that
    order of beings; their getting aged, frail, grey, and wrinkled; the
    failing of their vital force, the wearing out of the senses-this is
    called Decay.
      And what is Death? The parting and vanishing of beings out of this
    or that order of beings, their destruction, disappearance, death,
    the completion of their life-period, dissolution of the groups of
    existence, the discarding of the body-this is called Death.
      And what is Sorrow? The sorrow arising through this or that loss
    or misfortune which one encounters, the worrying oneself, the state of
    being alarmed, inward sorrow, inward woe-this is called Sorrow.
      And what is Lamentation? Whatsoever, through this or that loss or
    misfortune which befalls one, is wail and lament, wailing and
    lamenting, the state of woe and lamentation this is called
    Lamentation.
      And what is Pain? The bodily pain and unpleasantness, the painful
    and unpleasant feeling produced by bodily contact-this is called Pain.
      And what is Grief? The mental pain and unpleasantness, the painful
    and unpleasant feeling produced by mental contact-this is called
    Grief.
      And what is Despair? Distress and despair arising through this or
    that loss or misfortune which one encounters, distressfulness, and
    desperation-this is called Despair.
      And what is the "suffering of not getting what one desires?" To
    beings subject to birth there comes the desire: "O that we were not
    subject to birth! O that no new birth was before us!" Subject to
    decay, disease, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and
    despair, the desire comes to them: "O that we were not subject to
    these things! O that these things were not before us!" But this cannot
    be got by mere desiring; and not to get what one desires, is
    suffering.

                         THE FIVE GROUPS OF EXISTENCE

      And what, in brief, are the Five Groups of Existence? They are
    Corporeality, Feeling, Perception,  [mental]  Formations, and
    Consciousness.
      Any corporeal phenomenon, whether one's own or external, gross or
    subtle, lofty or low, far or near, belongs to the Group of
    Corporeality; any feeling belongs to the Group of Feeling; any
    perception belongs to the Group of Perception; any mental formation
    belongs to the Group of Formations; all consciousness belongs to the
    Group of Consciousness.
      [Our so-called individual existence is in reality nothing but a mere
    process of these "bodily and mental" phenomena, which since immemorial
    times was going on before one's apparent birth, and which also after
    death will continue for immemorial periods of time. In the
    following, we shall see that these five Groups, or Khandhas-either
    taken separately, or combined-in no way constitute any real
    "Ego-entity," and that no Ego-entity exists apart from them, and hence
    that the belief in an Ego-entity is merely an illusion. Just as that
    which we designate by the name of "chariot," has no existence apart
    from axle, wheels, shaft, and so forth: or as the word "house" is
    merely a convenient designation for various materials put together
    after a certain fashion so as to enclose a portion of space, and there
    is no separate house-entity in existence:-in exactly the same way,
    that which we call a "being," or an "individual," or a "person," or by
    the name is nothing but a changing combination of physical and
    psychical phenomena, and has no real existence in itself.]

                  THE "CORPOREALITY GROUP" OF FOUR ELEMENTS

      What, now, is the Group of Corporeality? It is the four primary
    elements, and Corporeality derived from them.
      And what are the four primary elements? They are the Solid
    Element, the Fluid Element, the Heating Element, the Vibrating
    Element.
      [The four elements, or-to speak more correctly-the four elementary
    qualities of matter, may be rendered in English as: Inertia, Cohesion,
    Radiation, and Vibration.
      The twenty-four corporeal phenomena which depend upon them are,
    according to the Abhidharma: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, visible
    form, sound, odor, taste, masculinity, femininity, vitality, organ
    of thinking, gesture, speech, space  (cavities of ear, nose, etc.),
    agility, elasticity, adaptability, growth, duration, decay,
    variability, change of substance.]
      1. What, now, is the Solid Element? The solid element may be one's
    own, or it may be external. And what is one's own solid element? The
    dependent properties, which on one's own person and body are hard
    and solid, as the hairs of head and body, nails, teeth, skin, flesh,
    sinews, bones, marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen,
    lungs, stomach, bowels, mesentery, excrement, or whatever other
    dependent properties which on one's own person and body are hard and
    solid-this is called one's own solid element. Now, whether it be one's
    own solid element, or whether it be the external solid element, they
    are both only the solid element.
      And one should understand, according to reality, and true wisdom:
    "This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego."
       2. What, now, is the Fluid Element? The fluid element may be
    one's own, or it may be external. And what is one own fluid element?
    The dependent properties, which on one's own person and body are
    watery or cohesive, as bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, lymph,
    tears, semen, spit, nasal mucus, oil of the joints, urine or
    whatever other dependent properties which on one own person and body
    are watery or cohesive-this is called one's own fluid element. Now,
    whether it be one's own fluid element, or whether it be the external
    fluid element, they are both only the fluid element.
      And one should understand, according to reality, and true wisdom:
    "This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego."
      3. What, now, is the Heating Element? The heating element may be one
    own, or it may be external. And what is one's own heating element? The
    dependent properties, which on one's own person and body are heating
    and radiating, as that whereby one is heated, consumed, scorched,
    whereby that which has been eaten, drunk, chewed, or tasted, is
    fully digested; or whatever other dependent properties, which on one's
    own person and body are heating and radiating this is called one's own
    heating element. Now, whether it be one's own heating element, or
    whether it be the external heating element, they are both only the
    heating element.
      And one should understand, according to reality, and true wisdom:
    "This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego."
      4. What, now, is the Vibrating Element? The vibrating element may be
    one's own, or it may be external. And what is one's own vibrating
    element? The dependent properties, which on one's own person and
    body are mobile and gaseous, as the upward-going and downward-going
    winds; the winds of stomach and intestines; in-breathing and
    out-breathing; or whatever other dependent properties, which on
    one's own person and body are mobile and gaseous-this is called
    one's own vibrating element. Now, whether it be one's own vibrating
    element, or whether it be the external vibrating element, they are
    both only the vibrating element.
      And one should understand, according to reality, and true wisdom:
    "This does not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego."
      Just as one calls "hut" the circumscribed space which comes to be by
    means of wood and rushes, reeds, and clay, even so we call "body"
    the circumscribed space that comes to be by means of bones and sinews,
    flesh and skin.

                    DEPENDENT ORIGINATION OF CONSCIOUSNESS

      Now, though one's eye be intact, yet if the external forms do not
    fall within the field of vision, and no corresponding conjunction
    takes place, in that case there occurs no formation of the
    corresponding aspect of consciousness. Or, though one eye be intact,
    and the external forms fall within the field of vision, yet if no
    corresponding conjunction takes place, in that case also there
    occurs no formation of the corresponding aspect of consciousness.
    If, however, one's eye is intact, and the external forms fall within
    the field of vision, and the corresponding conjunction takes place, in
    that case there arises the corresponding aspect of consciousness.
      Hence, I say: the arising of consciousness is dependent upon
    conditions; and without these conditions, no consciousness arises. And
    upon whatsoever conditions the arising of consciousness is
    dependent, after these it is called.
      Consciousness whose arising depends on the eye and forms, is
    called "eye-consciousness."
      Consciousness whose arising depends on the ear and sound, is
    called "ear-consciousness."
      Consciousness whose arising depends on the olfactory organ and
    odors, is called "nose-consciousness."
      Consciousness whose arising depends on the tongue and taste, is
    called "tongue-consciousness."
      Consciousness whose arising depends on the body and bodily contacts,
    is called "body-consciousness."
      Consciousness whose arising depends on the mind and ideas, is called
    "mind-consciousness."
      Whatsoever there is of "corporeality" in the consciousness thus
    arisen, that belongs to the Group of Corporeality. there is of
    "feeling"-bodily ease, pain, joy, sadness, or indifferent
    feeling-belongs to the Group of Feeling. Whatsoever there is of
    "perception"-visual objects, sounds, odors, tastes, bodily
    impressions, or mind objects-belongs to the Group of Perception.
    Whatsoever there are of mental "formations" impression, volition,
    etc.-belong to the Group of mental Formations. Whatsoever there is
    of "consciousness" therein, belongs to the Group of Consciousness.
      And it is impossible that any one can explain the passing out of one
    existence, and the entering into a new existence, or the growth,
    increase, and development of consciousness, independent of
    corporeality, feeling, perception, and mental formations.

                    THE THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF EXISTENCE

      All formations are "transient"; all formations are "subject to
    suffering"; all things are "without an Ego-entity." Corporeality is
    transient, feeling is transient, perception is transient, mental
    formations are transient, consciousness is transient.
      And that which is transient, is subject to suffering; and of that
    which is transient, and subject to suffering and change, one cannot
    rightly say: "This belongs to me; this am I; this is my Ego."
      Therefore, whatever there be of corporeality, of feeling,
    perception, mental formations, or consciousness, whether one's own
    or external, whether gross or subtle, lofty or low, far or near, one
    should understand, according to reality, and true wisdom: "This does
    not belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego."
      Suppose, a man who is not blind, were to behold the many bubbles
    on the Ganges as they are driving along; and he should watch them, and
    carefully examine them. After carefully examining them, they will
    appear to him empty, unreal, and unsubstantial. In exactly the same
    way, does the monk behold all the corporeal phenomena, feelings,
    perceptions, mental formations, and states of consciousness-whether
    they be of the past, or the present, or the future, far, or near.
    And he watches them, and examines them carefully; and, after carefully
    examining them, they appear to him empty, void, and without an Ego
      Whoso delights in corporeality, or feeling, or perception, or mental
    formations, or consciousness, he delights in suffering; and whoso
    delights in suffering, will not be freed from suffering. Thus I say

              How can you find delight and mirth,
              Where there is burning without end?
              In deepest darkness you are wrapped!
              Why do you not seek for the light?

              Look at this puppet here, well rigged,
              A heap of many sores, piled up,
              Diseased, and full of greediness,
              Unstable, and impermanent!

              Devoured by old age is this frame,
              A prey of sickness, weak and frail;
              To pieces breaks this putrid body,
              All life must truly end in death.

                              THE THREE WARNINGS

      Did you never see in the world a man, or a woman, eighty, ninety, or
    a hundred years old, frail, crooked as a gable roof, bent down,
    resting on crutches, with tottering steps, infirm, youth long since
    fled, with broken teeth, grey and scanty hair, or bald-headed,
    wrinkled, with blotched limbs? And did the thought never come to you
    that also you are subject to decay, that also you cannot escape it?
      Did you never see in the world a man, or a woman, who being sick,
    afflicted, and grievously ill, and wallowing in his own filth, was
    lifted up by some people, and put to bed by others? And did the
    thought never come to you that also you are subject to disease, that
    also you cannot escape it?
      Did you never see in the world the corpse of a man, or a woman, one,
    or two, or three days after death, swollen up, blue-black in color,
    and full of corruption? And did the thought never come to you that
    also you are subject to death, that also you cannot escape it?

                       SAMSARA, THE WHEEL OF EXISTENCE

      Inconceivable is the beginning of this Samsara; not to be discovered
    is any first beginning of beings, who, obstructed by ignorance, and
    ensnared by craving, are hurrying and hastening through this round
    of rebirths.
      [Samsara-the Wheel of Existence, lit., the "Perpetual
    Wandering"-is the name by which is designated the sea of life ever
    restlessly heaving up and down, the symbol of this continuous
    process of ever again and again being born, growing old, suffering,
    and dying. More precisely Put: Samsara is the unbroken chain of the
    fivefold Khandha-combinations, which, constantly changing from
    moment to moment, follow continuously one upon the other through
    inconceivable periods of time. Of this Samsara, a single lifetime
    constitutes only a vanishingly tiny fraction; hence, to be able to
    comprehend the first noble truth, one must let one's gaze rest upon
    the Samsara, upon this frightful chain of rebirths, and not merely
    upon one single lifetime, which, of course, may be sometimes not
    very painful.]
      Which do you think is the more: the flood of tears, which weeping
    and wailing you have shed upon this long way-hurrying and hastening
    through this round of rebirths, united with the undesired, separated
    from the desired this, or the waters of the four oceans?
      Long time have you suffered the death of father and mother, of sons,
    daughters, brothers, and sisters. And whilst you were thus
    suffering, you have, verily, shed more tears upon this long way than
    there is water in the four oceans.
      Which do you think is the more: the streams of blood that, through
    your being beheaded, have flowed upon this long way, or the waters
    in the four oceans?
      Long time have you been caught as dacoits, or highwaymen, or
    adulterers; and, through your being beheaded, verily, more blood has
    flowed upon this long way than there is water in the four oceans.
      But how is this possible?
      Inconceivable is the beginning of this Samsara; not to be discovered
    is any first beginning of beings, who, obstructed by ignorance, and
    ensnared by craving, are hurrying and hastening through this round
    of rebirths.
      And thus have you long time undergone suffering, undergone
    torment, undergone misfortune, and filled the graveyards full; verily,
    long enough to be dissatisfied with all the forms of existence, long
    enough to turn away, and free yourselves from them all.

                                 SECOND TRUTH
                  THE NOBLE TRUTH OF THE ORIGIN OF SUFFERING

      WHAT, now, is the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering? It is that
    craving which gives rise to fresh rebirth, and, bound up with pleasure
    and lust, now here, now there, finds ever fresh delight.
      [In the absolute sense, it is no real being, no self-determined,
    unchangeable, Ego-entity that is reborn. Moreover, there is nothing
    that remains the same even for two consecutive moments; for the Five
    Khandhas, or Groups of Existence, are in a state of perpetual
    change, of continual dissolution and renewal. They die every moment,
    and every moment new ones are born. Hence it follows that there is
    no such thing as a real existence, or "being"  (Latin esse),  but only
    as it were an endless process, a continuous change, a "becoming,"
    consisting in a "producing," and in a "being produced"; in a
    "process of action," and in a "process of reaction," or "rebirth."
      This process of perpetual "producing" and "being produced" may
    best be compared with an ocean wave. In the case of a wave, there is
    not the slightest quantity of water traveling over the surface of
    the sea. But the wave structure, that hastens over the surface of
    the water, creating the appearance of one and the same mass of
    water, is, in reality, nothing but the continuous rising and falling
    of continuous, but quite different, masses of water, produced by the
    transmission of force generated by the wind. Even so, the Buddha did
    not teach that Ego-entities hasten through the ocean of rebirth, but
    merely life-waves, which, according to their nature and activities
    (good, or evil),  manifest themselves here as men, there as animals,
    and elsewhere as invisible beings.]

                            THE THREEFOLD CRAVING

      There is the "Sensual Craving," the "Craving for
    Eternal-Annihilation." Existence," the "Craving for
    Self-Annihilation."
      [The "Craving for Eternal Existence," according to the
    Visuddhi-Magga, is intimately connected with the so-called
    Eternity-Belief," i.e., the belief in an absolute, eternal, Ego-entity
    persisting independently of our body.
      The Craving for Self-Annihilation is the outcome of the so-called
    "Annihilation-Belief," the delusive materialistic notion of an Ego
    which is annihilated at death, and which does not stand in any
    causal relation with the time before birth or after death.]
      But, where does this craving arise and take root? Wherever in the
    world there are delightful and pleasurable things, there this
    craving arises and takes root. Eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind,
    are delightful and pleasurable: there this craving arises and takes
    root.
      Visual objects, sounds, smells, tastes, bodily impressions, and
    mind-objects, are delightful and pleasurable: there this craving
    arises and takes root.
      Consciousness, sense impression, feeling born of sense impression,
    perception, will, craving, thinking, and reflecting, are delightful
    and pleasurable: there this craving arises and takes root.
      If, namely, when perceiving a visual object, a sound, odor, taste,
    bodily impression, or a mind object, the object is pleasant, one is
    attracted; and if unpleasant, one is repelled.
      Thus, whatever kind of "Feeling" one experiences, pleasant,
    unpleasant, or indifferent-one approves of, and cherishes the feeling,
    and clings to it; and while doing so, lust springs up; but lust for
    feelings, means Clinging; and on Clinging, depends the "Process of
    Becoming"; on the Process of Becoming  (Karma-process),  depends
    (future)  "Birth"; and dependent on Birth, are Decay and Death,
    Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain, Grief, and Despair. Thus arises this
    whole mass of suffering.
      This is called the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering.

                       HEAPING UP OF PRESENT SUFFERING

      Verily, due to sensuous craving, conditioned through sensuous
    craving, impelled by sensuous craving, entirely moved by sensuous
    craving, kings fight with kings, princes with princes, priests with
    priests, citizens with citizens; the mother quarrels with the son, the
    son with the mother, the father with the son, the son with the father;
    brother quarrels with brother, brother with sister, sister with
    brother, friend with friend. Thus, given to dissension, quarreling and
    fighting, they fall upon one another with fists, sticks, or weapons.
    And thereby they suffer death or deadly pain.
      And further, due to sensuous craving, conditioned through sensuous
    craving, impelled by sensuous craving, entirely moved by sensuous
    craving, people break into houses, rob, plunder, pillage whole houses,
    commit highway robbery, seduce the wives of others. Then, the rulers
    have such people caught, and inflict on them various forms of
    punishment. And thereby they incur death or deadly pain. Now, this
    is the misery of sensuous craving, the heaping up of suffering in this
    present life, due to sensuous craving, conditioned through sensuous
    craving, caused by sensuous craving, entirely dependent on sensuous
    craving.

                        HEAPING UP OF FUTURE SUFFERING

      And further, people take the evil way in deeds, the evil way in
    words, the evil way in thoughts; and by taking the evil way in
    deeds, words, and thoughts, at the dissolution of the body, after
    death, they fall into a downward state of existence, a state of
    suffering, into perdition, and the abyss of hell. But, this is the
    misery of sensuous craving, the heaping up of suffering in the
    future life, due to sensuous craving, conditioned through sensuous
    craving, caused by sensuous craving, entirely dependent on sensuous
    craving.

              Not in the air, nor ocean-midst,
              Nor hidden in the mountain clefts,
              Nowhere is found a place on earth,
              Where man is freed from evil deeds.

                        INHERITANCE OF DEEDS  (KARMA)

      For, owners of their deeds  (karma)  are the beings, heirs of
    their deeds; their deeds are the womb from which they sprang; with
    their deeds they are bound up; their deeds are their refuge.
    Whatever deeds they do-good or evil-of such they will be the heirs.
      And wherever the beings spring into existence, there their deeds
    will ripen; and wherever their deeds ripen, there they will earn the
    fruits of those deeds, be it in this life, or be it in the next
    life, or be it in any other future life.
      There will come a time, when the mighty ocean will dry up, vanish,
    and be no more. There will come a time, when the mighty earth will
    be devoured by fire, perish, and be no more. But, yet there will be no
    end to the suffering of beings, who, obstructed by ignorance, and
    ensnared by craving, are hurrying and hastening through this round
    of rebirths.

                                 THIRD TRUTH
                THE NOBLE TRUTH OF THE EXTINCTION OF SUFFERING

      WHAT, now, is the Noble Truth of the Extinction of Suffering? It
    is the complete fading away and extinction of this craving, its
    forsaking and giving up, the liberation and detachment from it.
      But where may this craving vanish, where may it be extinguished?
    Wherever in the world there are delightful and pleasurable things,
    there this craving may vanish, there it may be extinguished.
      Be it in the past, present, or future, whosoever of the monks or
    priests regards the delightful and pleasurable things in the world
    as "impermanent," "miserable," and "without an Ego," as a disease
    and cancer; it is he who overcomes the craving.
      And released from Sensual Craving, released from the Craving for
    Existence, he does not return, does not enter again into existence.

                    DEPENDENT EXTINCTION OF ALL PHENOMENA

      For, through the total fading away and extinction of Craving,
    Clinging is extinguished; through the extinction of clinging, the
    Process of Becoming is extinguished; through the extinction of the
    (karmic)  process of becoming, Rebirth is extinguished; and through
    the extinction of rebirth, Decay and Death, Sorrow, Lamentation,
    Suffering, Grief, and Despair, are extinguished. Thus comes about
    the extinction of this whole mass of suffering.
      Hence, the annihilation, cessation, and overcoming of
    corporeality, feeling, perception, mental formations, and
    consciousness, this is the extinction of suffering, the end of
    disease, the overcoming of old age and death.
      [The undulatory motion, which we call wave-which in the spectator
    creates the illusion of a single mass of water moving over the surface
    of the lake-is produced and fed by the wind, and maintained by the
    stored-up energies. After the wind has ceased, and no fresh wind again
    whips up the water, the stored-up energies will gradually be consumed,
    and the whole undulatory motion come to an end. Similarly, if fire
    does not get new fuel, it will become extinct. just so, this
    Five-Khandha-process-which, in the ignorant worldling, creates the
    illusion of an Ego-entity-is produced and fed by the life-affirming
    craving, and maintained for some time by means of the stored-up
    life-energies. Now, after the fuel, i.e., the craving and clinging
    to life, has ceased, and no new craving impels again this
    Five-Khandha-process, life will continue as long as there are still
    life-energies stored up, but at their destruction at death, the
    Five-Khandha-process will reach final extinction.
      Thus, nirvana or "Extinction"  (Sanskrit: to cease blowing, to
    become extinct),  may be considered under two aspects:
      1. "Extinction of Impurities," reached at the attainment of
    Arahatship, or Holiness, which takes place during the life-time.
      2. "Extinction of the Five-Khandha-process," which takes place at
    the death of the Arahat.]

                                   NIRVANA

      This, truly, is the Peace, this is the Highest, namely the end of
    all formations, the forsaking of every substratum of rebirth, the
    fading away of craving: detachment, extinction-Nirvana.
      Enraptured with lust, enraged with anger, blinded by delusion,
    overwhelmed, with mind ensnared, man aims at his own ruin, at
    others' ruin, at the ruin of both parties, and he experiences mental
    pain and grief. But, if lust, anger, and delusion are given up, man
    aims neither at his own ruin, nor at others' ruin, nor at the ruin
    of both parties, and he experiences no mental pain and grief. Thus
    is Nirvana immediate, visible in this life, inviting, attractive,
    and comprehensible to the wise.
      The extinction of greed, the extinction of anger, the extinction
    of delusion: this, indeed, is called Nirvana.

                           THE ARAHAT, OR HOLY ONE

      And for a disciple thus freed, in whose heart dwells peace, there is
    nothing to be added to what has been done, and naught more remains for
    him to do. Just as a rock of one solid mass remains unshaken by the
    wind, even so, neither forms, nor sounds, nor odors, nor tastes, nor
    contacts of any kind, neither the desired, nor the undesired, can
    cause such an one to waver. Steadfast is his mind, gained is
    deliverance.
      And he who has considered all the contrasts on this earth, and is no
    more disturbed by anything whatever in the world, the Peaceful One,
    freed from rage, from sorrow, and from longing, he has passed beyond
    birth and decay.

                                THE IMMUTABLE

      There is a realm, where there is neither the solid, nor the fluid,
    neither heat, nor motion, neither this world, nor any other world,
    neither sun, nor moon. This I call neither arising, nor passing
    away, neither standing still nor being born, nor dying. There is
    neither foothold, nor development, nor any basis. This is the end of
    suffering.
      There is an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed. If there were
    not this Unborn, this Unoriginated, this Uncreated, this Unformed,
    escape from the world of the born, the originated, the created, the
    formed, would not be possible.
      But since there is an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed,
    therefore is escape possible from the world of the born, the
    originated, the created, the formed.

                                 FOURTH TRUTH
                          THE NOBLE TRUTH OF THE PATH
                   THAT LEADS TO THE EXTINCTION OF SUFFERING

                     THE TWO EXTREMES AND THE MIDDLE PATH

      TO GIVE oneself up to indulgence in sensual pleasure, the base,
    common, vulgar, unholy, unprofitable; and also to give oneself up to
    self-mortification, the painful, unholy, unprofitable: both these
    two extremes the Perfect One has avoided, and found out the Middle
    Path, which makes one both to see and to know, which leads to peace,
    to discernment, to enlightenment, to Nirvana.

                              THE EIGHTFOLD PATH

      It is the Noble Eightfold Path, the way that leads to the extinction
    of suffering, namely:
      1. Right Understanding, 2. Right Mindedness, which together are
    Wisdom.
      3. Right Speech, 4. Right Action, 5. Right Living, which together
    are Morality.
      6. Right Effort, 7. Right Attentiveness, 8. Right Concentration,
    which together are Concentration.
      This is the Middle Path which the Perfect One has found out, which
    makes one both to see and to know, which leads to peace, to
    discernment, to enlightenment, to Nirvana.
      Free from pain and torture is this path, free from groaning and
    suffering; it is the perfect path.
      Truly, like this path there is no other path to the purity of
    insight. If you follow this path, you will put an end to suffering.
      But each one has to struggle for himself, the Perfect Ones have only
    pointed out the way.
      Give ear then, for the Immortal is found. I reveal, I set forth
    the Truth. As I reveal it to you, so act! And that supreme goal of the
    holy life, for the sake of which, sons of good families rightly go
    forth from home to the homeless state: this you will, in no long time,
    in this very life, make known to yourself, realize, and make your own.

                              THE EIGHTFOLD PATH
                                  FIRST STEP
                              RIGHT UNDERSTANDING

      WHAT, now, is Right Understanding? It is understanding the Four
    Truths. To understand suffering; to understand the origin of
    suffering; to understand the extinction of suffering; to understand
    the path that leads to the extinction of suffering: This is called
    Right Understanding
      Or, when the noble disciple understands what is karmically
    wholesome, and the root of wholesome karma; what is karmically
    unwholesome, and the root of unwholesome karma, then he has Right
    Understanding.
      ["Karmically unwholesome" is every volitional act of body, speech,
    or mind which is rooted in greed, hatred, or delusion, and produces
    evil and painful results in this or any future form of existence.]
      What, now, is "karmically unwholesome?"
      In Bodily Action it is destruction of living beings; stealing; and
    unlawful sexual intercourse. In Verbal Action it is lying;
    tale-bearing; harsh language; and frivolous talk. In Mental Action
    it is covetousness; ill-will; and wrong views.
      And what is the root of unwholesome karma? Greed is a root of
    unwholesome karma; Anger is a root of unwholesome karma; Delusion is a
    root of unwholesome karma.
      [The state of greed, as well as that of anger, is always accompanied
    by delusion; and delusion, ignorance, is the primary root of all
    evil.]
      Therefore, I say, these demeritorious actions are of three kinds:
    either due to greed, or due to anger, or due to delusion.
      What, now, is "karmically wholesome?"
      In Bodily Action it is to abstain from killing; to abstain from
    stealing; and to abstain from unlawful sexual intercourse.
      In Verbal Action it is to abstain from lying; to abstain from
    tale-bearing; to abstain from harsh language; and to abstain from
    frivolous talk.
      In Mental Action it is absence of covetousness; absence of ill-will;
    and right understanding.
      And what is the root of wholesome karma? Absence of greed
    (unselfishness)  is a root of wholesome karma; absence of anger
    (benevolence)  is a root of wholesome karma; absence of delusion
    (wisdom)  is a root of wholesome karma.
      Or, when one understands that corporeality, feeling, perception,
    mental formation, and consciousness, are transient  [subject to
    suffering, and without an Ego],  also in that case one possesses Right
    Understanding.

                            UNPROFITABLE QUESTIONS

      Should anyone say that he does not wish to lead the holy life
    under the Blessed One, unless the Blessed One first tells him, whether
    the world is eternal or temporal, finite or infinite; whether the life
    principle is identical with the body, or something different;
    whether the Perfect One continues after death, and so on such a man
    would die, ere the Perfect One could tell him all this.
      It is as if a man were pierced by a poisoned arrow, and his friends,
    companions, or near relations, should send for a surgeon; but that man
    should say: "I will not have this arrow pulled out, until I know who
    the man is that has wounded me: whether he is a noble, a priest, a
    citizen, or a servant"; or: "what his name is, and to what family he
    belongs"; or: "whether he is tall, or short, or of medium height."
    Verily, such a man would die, ere he could adequately learn all this.
      Therefore, the man who seeks his own welfare, should pull out this
    arrow-this arrow of lamentation, pain, and sorrow.
      For, whether the theory exists, or whether it does not exist, that
    the world is eternal, or temporal, or finite, or infinite-certainly,
    there is birth, there is decay, there is death, sorrow, lamentation,
    pain, grief, and despair, the extinction of which, attainable even
    in this present life, I make known unto you.
      There is, for instance, an unlearned worldling, void of regard for
    holy men, ignorant of the teaching of holy men, untrained in the noble
    doctrine. And his heart is possessed and overcome by Self-Illusion, by
    Skepticism, by attachment to mere Rule and Ritual, by Sensual Lust,
    and by will; and how to free himself from these things, he does not
    really know.
      [Self-Illusion may reveal itself as "Eternalism" or Eternity-belief"
    i.e., the belief that one's Ego is existing independently of the
    material body, and continuing even after the dissolution of the
    latter; or as "Annihilationism," or "Annihilation-belief" i.e., the
    materialistic belief that this present life constitutes the Ego, and
    hence that it is annihilated at the death of the material body.]
      Not knowing what is worthy of consideration, and what is unworthy of
    consideration, he considers the unworthy, and not the worthy.
      And unwisely he considers thus: "Have I been in the past? Or. have I
    not been in the past? What have I been in the past? How have I been in
    the past? From what state into what state did I change in the
    past?-Shall I be in the future? Or, shall I not be in the future? What
    shall I be in the future? How shall I be in the future? From what
    state into what state shall I change in the future?" And the present
    also fills him with doubt: "Am I? Or, am I not? What am I? How am I?
    This being, whence has it come? Whither will it go?"
      And with such unwise considerations, he falls into one or other of
    the six views, and it becomes his conviction and firm belief: "I
    have an Ego"; or: "I have no Ego"; or: "With the Ego I perceive the
    Ego"; or: "With that which is no Ego, I perceive the Ego"; or: "With
    the Ego I perceive that which is no Ego. Or, he falls into the
    following view: "This my Ego, which can think and feel, and which, now
    here, now there, experiences the fruit of good and evil deeds; this my
    Ego is permanent, stable, eternal, not subject to change, and will
    thus eternally remain the same."
      If there really existed the Ego, there would be also something which
    belonged to the Ego. As, however, in truth and reality, neither the
    Ego, nor anything belonging to the Ego, can be found, is it not
    therefore really an utter fool's doctrine to say: "This is the
    world, this am I; after death, I shall be permanent, persisting, and
    eternal?"
      These are called mere views, a thicket of views, a puppet show of
    views, a toil of views, a snare of views; and ensnared in the fetter
    of views, the ignorant worldling will not be freed from rebirth,
    from decay, and from death, from sorrow, pain, grief, and despair;
    he will not be freed, I say, from suffering.

                       THE SOTAPAN, OR "STREAM-ENTERER"

      The learned and noble disciple, however, who has regard for holy
    men, knows the teaching of holy men, is well trained in the noble
    doctrine, he understands what is worthy of consideration, and what
    is unworthy. And knowing this, he considers the worthy, and not the
    unworthy. What suffering is, he wisely considers. What the origin of
    suffering is, he wisely considers; what the extinction of suffering
    is, he wisely considers; what the path is that leads to the extinction
    of suffering, he wisely considers.
      And by thus considering, three fetters vanish, namely:
    Self-illusion, Skepticism, and Attachment to mere Rule and Ritual.
      But those disciples in whom these three fetters have vanished have
    "entered the Stream," have forever escaped the states of woe, and
    are assured of final enlightenment.

              More than any earthly power,
              More than all the joys of heaven,
              More than rule o'er all the world,
              Is the Entrance to the Stream.

      And, verily, those who are filled with unshaken faith in me, all
    those have entered the stream.
      There are ten "Fetters" by which beings are bound to the wheel of
    existence. They are: Self-Illusion, Skepticism, Attachment to mere
    Rule and Ritual, Sensual Lust, Ill-will, Craving for the World of pure
    Form, Craving for the Formless World, Conceit, Restlessness,
    Ignorance.
      A Sotapan, or "Stream-Enterer" i.e. "one who has entered the
    stream leading to Nirvana," is free from the first three fetters.
      A Sakadagamin, or "Once-Returned"-namely to this sensuous sphere-has
    overcome the 4th and 5th fetters in their grosser form. An Anagamin,
    or "Non-Returner," is wholly freed from the first five fetters,
    which bind to rebirth in the sensuous sphere; after death, whilst
    living in the sphere of pure form, he will reach the goal. An
    Arahat, or perfectly "Holy One," is freed from all fetters.]

                            THE TWO UNDERSTANDINGS

      Therefore, I say, Right Understanding is of two kinds:
      1. The view that alms and offerings are not useless; that there is
    fruit and result, both of good and bad actions; that there are such
    things as this life, and the next life; that father and mother as
    spontaneously born beings  (in the heavenly worlds)  are no mere
    words; that there are monks and priests who are spotless and
    perfect, who can explain this life and the next life, which they
    themselves have understood: this is called the "Mundane Right
    Understanding," which yields worldly fruits, and brings good results.
      2. But whatsoever there is of wisdom, of penetration, of right
    understanding, conjoined with the Path-the mind being turned away from
    the world, and conjoined with the path, the holy path being turned
    away from the world, and conjoined with the path, the holy path
    being pursued;-this is called the "Ultramundane Right
    Understanding," which is not of the world, but is ultramundane, and
    conjoined with the Path.
      [Thus, there are two kinds of the Eightfold Path: the "mundane,"
    practiced by the "worldling"; and the "ultra-mundane," practiced by
    the "Noble Ones."]
      Now, in understanding wrong understanding as wrong, and right
    understanding as right, one practices Right Understanding  [1st step];
     and in making efforts to overcome wrong understanding, and to
    arouse right understanding, one practices. Right Effort  [6th step];
     and in overcoming wrong understanding with attentive mind, and
    dwelling with attentive mind in the possession of right understanding,
    one practices Right-Attentiveness  [7th step].  Hence, there are three
    things that accompany and follow upon right understanding, namely:
    right understanding, right effort, and right attentiveness.

                             COMPLETE DELIVERANCE

      Now, if any one should put the question, whether I admit any view at
    all, he should be answered thus:
      The Perfect One is free from any theory, for the Perfect One has
    understood what corporeality is, and how it arises, and passes away.
    He has understood what feeling is, and how it arises, and passes away.
    He has understood what perception is, and how it arises, and passes
    away. He has understood what the mental formations are, and how they
    arise, and pass away. He has understood what consciousness is, and how
    it arises, and passes away. Therefore, I say, the Perfect One has
    won complete deliverance through the extinction, fading-away,
    disappearance, rejection, and getting rid of all opinions and
    conjectures, of all inclination to the vainglory of "I" and "mine."
      Whether Perfect Ones  [Buddhas]  appear in the world or whether
    Perfect Ones do not appear in the world, it still remains a firm
    condition, an immutable fact and fixed law: that all formations are
    impermanent" that all formations are "subject to suffering"; that
    everything is "without an Ego."
      [The word sankhara  (formations)  comprises all things which have
    a beginning and an end, the so-called created, or "formed" things,
    i.e., all possible physical and mental constituents of existence.]
      A corporeal phenomenon, a feeling, a perception, a mental formation,
    a consciousness, that is permanent and persistent, eternal and not
    subject to change: such a thing the wise men in this world do not
    recognize; and I also say, there is no such thing.
      And it is impossible that a being possessed of Right Understanding
    should regard anything as the Ego.
      Now, if someone should say that Feeling is his Ego, he should be
    answered thus: "There are three kinds of feeling: pleasurable,
    painful, and indifferent feeling. Which of these three feelings,
    now, do you consider your Ego?" At the moment namely of experiencing
    one of these feelings one does not experience the other two. These
    three kinds of feelings are impermanent, of dependent origin, are
    subject to decay and dissolution, to fading-away and extinction.
    Whosoever, in experiencing one of these feelings, thinks that this
    is his Ego, will, after the extinction of that feeling, admit that his
    Ego has become dissolved. And thus he will consider his Ego already in
    this present life as impermanent, mixed up with pleasure and pain,
    subject to rising and passing away.
      If any one should say that Feeling is not his Ego, and that his
    Ego is inaccessible to feeling, he should be asked thus: "Now, where
    there is no feeling, is it there possible to say: 'This am I?'"
      Or, someone might say: "Feeling, indeed, is not my Ego, but it
    also is untrue that my Ego is inaccessible to feeling; for it is my
    Ego that feels, for my Ego has the faculty of feeling." Such a one
    should be answered thus: "Suppose, feeling should become altogether
    totally extinguished; now, if there, after the extinction of
    feeling, no feeling whatever exists, it is then possible to say: 'This
    am I?'"
      To say that the mind, or the mind-objects, or the
    mind-consciousness, constitute the Ego; such an assertion is
    unfounded. For an arising and a passing away is seen there; and seeing
    this, one should come to the conclusion that one's Ego arises and
    passes away.
      It would be better for the unlearned worldling to regard this
    body, built up of the four elements, as his Ego, rather than the mind.
    For it is evident that this body may last for a year, for two years,
    for three years, four, five, or ten years, or even a hundred years and
    more; but that which is called thought, or mind, or consciousness,
    is continuously, during day and night, arising as one thing, and
    passing away as another thing.
      Therefore, whatsoever there is of corporeality, of feeling, of
    perception, of mental formations, of consciousness, whether one's
    own or external, gross or subtle, lofty or low, far or near; there one
    should understand according to reality and true wisdom: "This does not
    belong to me; this am I not; this is not my Ego."
      [To show the Egolessness, utter emptiness of existence,
    Visuddhi-Magga XVI quotes the following verse:

              Mere suffering exists, no sufferer is found;
              The deed is, but no doer of the deed is there;
              Nirvana is, but not the man that enters it;
              The Path is, but no traveler on it is seen.]

                          PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

      If, now, any one should ask: "Have you been in the past, and is it
    untrue that you have not been? Will you be in the future, and is it
    untrue that you will not be? Are you, and is it untrue that you are
    not?"-you may say that you have been in the past, and it is untrue
    that you have not been; that you will be in the future, and it is
    untrue that you will not be; that you are, and it is untrue that you
    are not.
      In the past only the past existence was real, but unreal the
    future and present existence. In the future only the future
    existence will be real, but unreal the past and present existence. Now
    only the present existence is real, but unreal the past and future
    existence.
      Verily, he who perceives the Dependent Origination, perceives the
    truth and he who perceives the truth, perceives the dependent
    origination. For, just as from the cow comes milk, from milk curds,
    from curds butter, from butter ghee, from ghee the scum of ghee; and
    when it is milk, it is not counted as curds, or butter, or ghee, or
    scum of ghee, but only as milk; and when it is curds, it is only
    counted as curds-just so was my past existence at that time real,
    but unreal the future and present existence; and my future existence
    will be at one time real, but unreal the past and present existence;
    and my present existence is now real, but unreal the past and future
    existence. All these are merely popular designations and
    expressions, mere conventional terms of speaking, mere popular
    notions. The Perfect One, indeed, makes use of these, without,
    however, clinging to them.
      Thus, he who does not understand corporeality, feeling,
    perception, mental formations and consciousness according to reality
     [i.e., as void of a personality, or Ego],  and not their arising,
    their extinction, and the way to their extinction, he is liable to
    believe, either that the Perfect One continues after death, or that he
    does not continue after death, and so forth.
      Verily, if one holds the view that the vital principle  [Ego]  is
    identical with this body, in that case a holy life is not possible;
    or, if one holds the view that the vital principle is something
    quite different from the body, in that case also a holy life is not
    possible. Both these two Extremes the Perfect One has avoided, and
    shown the Middle Doctrine, saying:

                            DEPENDENT ORIGINATION

      On Delusion depend the Karma-Formations. On the karma-formations
    depends Consciousness  [starting with rebirth-consciousness in the
    womb of the mother].- On consciousness depends the Mental and Physical
    Existence.-On the mental and physical existence depend the Six
    Sense-Organs.-On the six sense-organs depends the Sensory
    Impression.-On the sensory impression depends Feeling.-On feeling
    depends; Craving.-On craving depends Clinging. On clinging depends the
    Process of Becoming.-On the process of becoming  [here: karmaprocess]
    depends Rebirth.-On rebirth depend Decay and Death, sorrow,
    lamentation, pain, grief and despair. Thus arises this whole mass of
    suffering. This is called the noble truth of the origin of suffering.
      In whom, however, Delusion has disappeared and wisdom arisen, such a
    disciple heaps up neither meritorious, nor demeritorious, nor
    imperturbable Karma-formations.
      Thus, through the entire fading away and extinction of this
    Delusion, the Karma-Formations are extinguished. Through the
    extinction of the Karma-formations, Consciousness  [rebirth]  is
    extinguished. Through the extinction of consciousness, the Mental
    and Physical Existence is extinguished. Through the extinction of
    the mental and physical existence, the six Sense-Organs are
    extinguished. Through the extinction of the six sense-organs, the
    Sensory Impression is extinguished. Through the extinction of the
    sensory impression, Feeling is extinguished. Through the extinction of
    feeling, Craving is extinguished. Through the extinction of craving,
    Clinging is extinguished. Through the extinction of clinging, the
    Process of Becoming is extinguished. Through the extinction of the
    process of becoming, Rebirth is extinguished. Through the extinction
    of rebirth, Decay and Death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and
    despair are extinguished. Thus takes place the extinction of this
    whole mass of suffering. This is called the Noble Truth of the
    Extinction of Suffering.

                    KARMA:  REBIRTH - PRODUCING AND BARREN

      Verily, because beings, obstructed by Delusion, and ensnared by
    Craving, now here now there seek ever fresh delight, therefore such
    action comes to ever fresh Rebirth.
      And the action that is done out of greed, anger and delusion, that
    springs from them, has its source and origin there: this action ripens
    wherever one is reborn; and wherever this action ripens, there one
    experiences the fruits of this action, be it in this life, or the next
    life, or in some future life.
      However, through the fading away of delusion through the arising
    of wisdom, through the extinction of craving, no future rebirth
    takes place again
      For the actions, which are not done out of greed, anger and
    delusion, which have not sprung from them, which have not their source
    and origin there-such actions are, through the absence of greed, anger
    and delusion, abandoned, rooted out, like a palm-tree torn out of
    the soil, destroyed, and not liable to spring up again.
      In this respect one may rightly say of me: that I teach
    annihilation, that I propound my doctrine for the purpose of
    annihilation, and that I herein train my disciples; for, certainly,
    I do teach annihilation-the annihilation, namely, of greed, anger
    and delusion, as well as of the manifold evil and unwholesome things.
      ["Dependent Origination" is the teaching of the strict conformity to
    law of everything that happens, whether in the realm of the
    physical, or the psychical. It shows how the totality of phenomena,
    physical and mental, the entire phenomenal world that depends wholly
    upon the six senses, together with all its suffering-and this is the
    vital point of the teaching is not the mere play of blind chance,
    but has an existence that is dependent upon conditions; and that,
    precisely with the removal of these conditions, those things that have
    arisen in dependence upon them-thus also all suffering-must perforce
    disappear and cease to be.]

                                 SECOND STEP
                               RIGHT MINDEDNESS

      WHAT, now, is Right Mindedness? It is thoughts free from lust;
    thoughts free from ill-will; thoughts free from cruelty. This is
    called right mindedness.
      Now, Right Mindedness, let me tell you, is of two kinds: 1. Thoughts
    free from lust, from ill-will, and from cruelty:-this is called the
    "Mundane Right Mindedness," which yields worldly fruits and brings
    good results.
      2. But, whatsoever there is of thinking, considering, reasoning,
    thought, ratiocination, application-the mind being holy, being
    turned away from the world, and conjoined with the path, the holy path
    being pursued-: these "Verbal Operations" of the mind are called the
    "Ultramundane Right Mindedness which is not of the world, but is ultra
    mundane, and conjoined with the paths.
      Now, in understanding wrong-mindedness as wrong, and
    right-mindedness as right, one practices Right Understanding  [1st
    step];  and in making efforts to overcome evil-mindedness, and to
    arouse right-mindedness, one practices Right Effort  [6th step];
    and in overcoming evil-mindedness with attentive mind, and dwelling
    with attentive mind in possession of right-mindedness, one practices
    Right Attentiveness  [7th step].  Hence, there are three things that
    accompany and follow upon right-mindedness, namely: right
    understanding, right effort, and right attentiveness.

    THIRD STEP
                                  THIRD STEP
                                 RIGHT SPEECH

      WHAT, now, is Right Speech? It is abstaining from lying;
    abstaining from tale-bearing; abstaining from harsh language;
    abstaining from vain talk.
      There, someone avoids lying, and abstains from it. He speaks the
    truth, is devoted to the truth, reliable, worthy of confidence, is not
    a deceiver of men. Being at a meeting, or amongst people, or in the
    midst of his relatives, or in a society, or in the king's court, and
    called upon and asked as witness, to tell what he knows, he answers,
    if he knows nothing: "I know nothing"; and if he knows, he answers: "I
    know"; if he has seen nothing, he answers: "I have seen nothing,"
    and if he has seen, he answers: "I have seen." Thus, he never
    knowingly speaks a lie, neither for the sake of his own advantage, nor
    for the sake of another person's advantage, nor for the sake of any
    advantage whatsoever.
      He avoids tale-bearing, and abstains from it. What he has heard
    here, he does not repeat there, so as to cause dissension there; and
    what he heard there, he does not repeat here, so as to cause
    dissension here. Thus he unites those that are divided; and those that
    are united, he encourages. Concord gladdens him, he delights and
    rejoices in concord, and it is concord that he spreads by his words.
      He avoids harsh language, and abstains from it. He speaks such words
    as are gentle, soothing to the ear, loving, going to the heart,
    courteous and dear, and agreeable to many.
      [In Majjhima-Nikaya, No. 21, the Buddha says: "Even, O monks, should
    robbers and murderers saw through your limbs and joints, whoso gave
    way to anger thereat, would not be following my advice. For thus ought
    you to train yourselves:
      "'Undisturbed shall our mind remain, no evil words shall escape
    our lips; friendly and full of sympathy shall we remain, with heart
    full of love, and free from any hidden malice; and that person shall
    we penetrate with loving thoughts, wide, deep, boundless, freed from
    anger and hatred.'"]
      He avoids vain talk, and abstains from it. He speaks at the right
    time, in accordance with facts, speaks what is useful, speaks about
    the law and the discipline; his speech is like a treasure, at the
    right moment accompanied by arguments, moderate and full of sense.
      This is called right speech.
      Now, right speech, let me tell you, is of two kinds: 1. Abstaining
    from lying, from tale-bearing, from harsh language, and from vain
    talk; this is called the "Mundane Right Speech, which yields worldly
    fruits and brings good results.
      2. But the abhorrence of the practice of this four-fold wrong
    speech, the abstaining, withholding, refraining therefrom-the mind
    being holy, being turned away from the world, and conjoined with the
    path, the holy path being pursued-: this is called the "Ultramundane
    Right Speech, which is not of the world, but is ultramundane, and
    conjoined with the paths.
      Now, in understanding wrong speech as wrong, and right speech as
    right, one practices Right Understanding  [1st step);  and in making
    efforts to overcome evil speech and to arouse right speech, one
    practices Right Effort  [6th step];  and in overcoming wrong speech
    with attentive mind, and dwelling with attentive mind in possession of
    right speech, one practices Right Attentiveness  [7th step].  Hence,
    there are three things that accompany and follow upon right
    attentiveness.

                                 FOURTH STEP
                                RIGHT  ACTION

      WHAT, now, is Right Action? It is abstaining from killing;
    abstaining from stealing; abstaining from unlawful sexual intercourse.
      There, someone avoids the killing of living beings, and abstains
    from it. Without stick or sword, conscientious, full of sympathy, he
    is anxious for the welfare of all living beings.
      He avoids stealing, and abstains from it; what another person
    possesses of goods and chattels in the village or in the wood, that he
    does not take away with thievish intent.
      He avoids unlawful sexual intercourse, and abstains from it. He
    has no intercourse with such persons as are still under the protection
    of father, mother, brother, sister or relatives, nor with married
    women, nor female convicts, nor, lastly, with betrothed girls.
      This is called Right Action.
      Now, Right Action, let me tell you, is of two kinds: 1. Abstaining
    from killing, from stealing, and from unlawful sexual intercourse-this
    is called the "Mundane Right Action, which yields worldly fruits and
    brings good results. But the abhorrence of the practice of this
    three-fold wrong action, the abstaining, withholding, refraining
    therefrom-the mind being holy, being turned away from the world, and
    conjoined with the path, the holy path being pursued-: this is
    called the "Ultramundane Right Action," which is not of the world, but
    is ultramundane, and conjoined with the paths.
      Now, in understanding wrong action as wrong, and right action as
    right, one practices Right Understanding  [1st step];  and in making
    efforts to overcome wrong action, and to arouse right action, one
    practices Right Effort  [6th step];  and in overcoming wrong action
    with attentive mind, and dwelling with attentive mind in possession of
    right action, one practices Right Attentiveness  [7th step].  Hence,
    there are three things that accompany and follow upon right action,
    namely: right understanding, right effort, and right attentiveness.

                                  FIFTH STEP
                                 RIGHT LIVING

      WHAT, now, is Right Living? When the noble disciple, avoiding a
    wrong way of living, gets his livelihood by a right way of living,
    this is called Right Living.
      Now, right living, let me tell you, is of two kinds: 1. When the
    noble disciple, avoiding wrong living, gets his livelihood by a
    right way of living-this is called the "Mundane Right Living," which
    yields worldly fruits and brings good results.
      2. But the abhorrence of wrong living, the abstaining,
    withholding, refraining therefrom-the mind being holy, being turned
    away from the world, and conjoined with the path, the holy path
    being pursued-: this is called the "Ultramundane Right Living,"
    which is not of the world, but is ultramundane, and conjoined with the
    paths.
      Now, in understanding wrong living as wrong, and right living as
    right, one practices Right Understanding  [1st step];  and in making
    efforts to overcome wrong living, to arouse right living, one
    practices Right Effort  [6th step];  and in overcoming wrong living
    with attentive mind, and dwelling with attentive mind in possession of
    right living, one practices Right Attentiveness  [7th step].  Hence,
    there are three things that accompany and follow upon right living,
    namely: right understanding, right effort, and right attentiveness.

                                  SIXTH STEP
                                 RIGHT EFFORT

      WHAT, now, is Right Effort? There are Four Great Efforts: the effort
    to avoid, the effort to overcome, the effort to develop, and the
    effort to maintain.
      What, now, is the effort to avoid? There, the disciple incites his
    mind to avoid the arising of evil, demeritorious things that have
    not yet arisen; and he strives, puts forth his energy, strains his
    mind and struggles.
      Thus, when he perceives a form with the eye, a sound with the ear,
    an odor with the nose, a taste with the tongue, a contact with the
    body, or an object with the mind, he neither adheres to the whole, nor
    to its parts. And he strives to ward off that through which evil and
    demeritorious things, greed and sorrow, would arise, if he remained
    with unguarded senses; and he watches over his senses, restrains his
    senses.
      Possessed of this noble "Control over the Senses," he experiences
    inwardly a feeling of joy, into which no evil thing can enter. This is
    called the effort to avoid.
      What, now, is the effort to Overcome? There, the disciple incites
    his mind to overcome the evil, demeritorious things that have
    already arisen; and he strives, puts forth his energy, strains his
    mind and struggles.
      He does not retain any thought of sensual lust, ill-will, or
    grief, or any other evil and demeritorious states that may have
    arisen; he abandons them, dispels them, destroys them, causes them
    to disappear.

                   FIVE METHODS OF EXPELLING EVIL THOUGHTS

      If, whilst regarding a certain object, there arise in the
    disciple, on account of it, evil and demeritorious thoughts
    connected with greed, anger and delusion, then the disciple should, by
    means of this object, gain another and wholesome object. Or, he should
    reflect on the misery of these thoughts: "Unwholesome, truly, are
    these thoughts! Blameable are these thoughts! Of painful result are
    these thoughts!" Or, he should pay no attention to these thoughts. Or,
    he should consider the compound nature of these thoughts. Or, with
    teeth clenched and tongue pressed against the gums, he should, with
    his mind, restrain, suppress and root out these thoughts; and in doing
    so, these evil and demeritorious thoughts of greed, anger and delusion
    will dissolve and disappear; and the mind will inwardly become settled
    and calm, composed and concentrated.
      This is called the effort to overcome.
      What, now, is the effort to Develop? There the disciple incites
    his will to arouse meritorious conditions that have not yet arisen;
    and he strives, puts forth his energy, strains his mind and struggles.
      Thus he develops the "Elements of Enlightenment," bent on
    solitude, on detachment, on extinction, and ending in deliverance,
    namely: Attentiveness, Investigation of the Law, Energy, Rapture,
    Tranquility, Concentration, and Equanimity. This is called the
    effort to develop.
      What, now, is the effort to Maintain? There, the disciple incites
    his will to maintain the meritorious conditions that have already
    arisen, and not to let them disappear, but to bring them to growth, to
    maturity and to the full perfection of development; and he strives,
    puts forth his energy, strains his mind and struggles.
      Thus, for example, he keeps firmly in his mind a favorable object of
    concentration that has arisen, as the mental image of a skeleton, of a
    corpse infested by worms, of a corpse blue-black in color, of a
    festering corpse, of a corpse riddled with holes, of a corpse
    swollen up.
      This is called the effort to maintain.
      Truly, the disciple who is possessed of faith and has penetrated the
    Teaching of the Master, he is filled with the thought: "May rather
    skin, sinews and bones wither away, may the flesh and blood of my body
    dry up: I shall not give up my efforts so long as I have not
    attained whatever is attainable by manly perseverance, energy and
    endeavor!"
      This is called right effort.

              The effort of Avoiding, Overcoming,
              Of Developing and Maintaining:
              These four great efforts have been shown
              By him, the scion of the sun.
              And he who firmly clings to them,
              May put an end to all the pain.

                                 SEVENTH STEP
                              RIGHT ATTENTIVENESS

      WHAT, now, is Right Attentiveness? The only way that leads to the
    attainment of purity, to the overcoming of sorrow and lamentation,
    to the end of pain and grief, to the entering upon the right path
    and the realization of Nirvana, is the "Four Fundamentals of
    Attentiveness." And which are these four? In them, the disciple dwells
    in contemplation of the Body, in contemplation of Feeling, in
    contemplation of the Mind, in contemplation of the Mind-objects,
    ardent, clearly conscious and attentive, after putting away worldly
    greed and grief.

                          CONTEMPLATION OF THE BODY

      But, how does the disciple dwell in contemplation of the body?
    There, the disciple retires to the forest, to the foot of a tree, or
    to a solitary place, sits himself down, with legs crossed, body erect,
    and with attentiveness fixed before him.
      With attentive mind he breathes in, with attentive mind he
    breathes out. When making a long inhalation, he knows: "I make a
    long inhalation"; when making a long exhalation, he knows: "I make a
    long exhalation." when making a short inhalation, he knows: "I make
    a short inhalation"; when making a short exhalation, he knows: "I make
    a short exhalation." "Clearly perceiving the entire  [breath]-body,  I
    will breathe in": thus he trains himself; "clearly perceiving the
    entire  [breath]-body, I will breathe out": thus he trains himself.
    "Calming this bodily function, I will breathe n": thus he trains
    himself; "calming this bodily function, I will breathe out": thus he
    trains himself.
      Thus he dwells in contemplation of the body, either with regard to
    his own person, or to other persons, or to both. He beholds how the
    body arises; beholds how it passes away; beholds the arising and
    passing away of the body. "A body is there-

        "A body is there, but no living being, no individual, no woman,
        no man, no self, and nothing that belongs to a self; neither a
        person, nor anything belonging to a person"-

    this clear consciousness is present in him, because of his knowledge
    and mindfulness, and he lives independent, unattached to anything in
    the world. Thus does the disciple dwell in contemplation of the body.
      And further, whilst going, standing, sitting, or lying down, the
    disciple understands the expressions: "I go"; "I stand"; "I sit"; "I
    lie down"; he understands any position of the body.
      [The disciple understands that it is not a being, a real Ego, that
    goes, stands, etc., but that it is by a mere figure of speech that one
    says: "I go," "I stand," and so forth.]
      And further, the disciple is clearly conscious in his going and
    coming; clearly conscious in looking forward and backward; clearly
    conscious in bending and stretching; clearly conscious in eating,
    drinking, chewing, and tasting; clearly conscious in discharging
    excrement and urine; clearly conscious in walking, standing,
    sitting, falling asleep and awakening; clearly conscious in speaking
    and in keeping silent.
      "In all the disciple is doing, he is clearly conscious: of his
    intention, of his advantage, of his duty, of the reality."
      And further, the disciple contemplates this body from the sole of
    the foot upward, and from the top of the hair downward, with a skin
    stretched over it, and filled with manifold impurities: "This body
    consists of hairs, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, marrow,
    kidneys, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen, lungs, intestines, bowels,
    stomach, and excrement; of bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, lymph,
    tears, semen, spittle, nasal mucus, oil of the joints, and urine."
      Just as if there were a sack, with openings at both ends, filled
    with all kinds of grain-with paddy, beans, sesamum and husked rice-and
    a man not blind opened it and examined its contents, thus: "That is
    paddy, these are beans, this is sesamum, this is husked rice": just so
    does the disciple investigate this body.
      And further, the disciple contemplates this body with regard to
    the elements: "This body consists of the solid element, the liquid
    element, the heating element and the vibrating element." Just as a
    skilled butcher or butcher's apprentice, who has slaughtered a cow and
    divided it into separate portions, should sit down at the junction
    of four highroads: just so does the disciple contemplate this body
    with regard to the elements.
      And further, just as if the disciple should see a corpse thrown into
    the burial-ground, one, two, or three days dead, swollen-up,
    blue-black in color, full of corruption he draws the conclusion as
    to his own body: "This my body also has this nature, has this destiny,
    and cannot escape it." And further, just as if the disciple should see
    a corpse thrown into the burial-ground, eaten by crows, hawks or
    vultures, by dogs or jackals, or gnawed by all kinds of worms-he draws
    the conclusion as to his own body: "This my body also has this nature,
    has this destiny, and cannot escape it."
      And further, just as if the disciple should see a corpse thrown into
    the burial-ground, a framework of bones, flesh hanging from it,
    bespattered with blood, held together by the sinews; a framework of
    bones, stripped of flesh, bespattered with blood, held together by the
    sinews; a framework of bones, without flesh and blood, but still
    held together by the sinews; bones, disconnected and scattered in
    all directions, here a bone of the hand, there a bone of the foot,
    there a shin bone, there a thigh bone, there the pelvis, there the
    spine, there the skull-he draws the conclusion as to his own body:
    "This my body also has this nature, has this destiny, and cannot
    escape it."
      And further, just as if the disciple should see bones lying in the
    burial ground, bleached and resembling shells; bones heaped
    together, after the lapse of years; bones weathered and crumbled to
    dust;-he draws the conclusion as to his own body: "This my body also
    has this nature, has this destiny, and cannot escape it "
      Thus he dwells in contemplation of the body, either with regard to
    his own person, or to other persons, or to both. He beholds how the
    body arises; beholds how it passes away; beholds the arising and
    passing of the body. "A body is there" this clear consciousness is
    present in him, because of his knowledge and mindfulness; and he lives
    independent, unattached to anything in the world. Thus does the
    disciple dwell in contemplation of the body.

                              THE TEN BLESSINGS

      Once the contemplation of the body is practiced, developed, often
    repeated, has become one's habit, one's foundation, is firmly
    established, strengthened and well perfected, one may expect ten
    blessings:
      Over Delight and Discontent one has mastery; one does not allow
    himself to be overcome by discontent; one subdues it, as soon as it
    arises. One conquers Fear and Anxiety; one does not allow himself to
    be overcome by fear and anxiety; one subdues them, as soon as they
    arise. One endures cold and heat, hunger and thirst, wind and sun,
    attacks by gadflies, mosquitoes and reptiles; patiently one endures
    wicked and malicious speech, as well as bodily pains, that befall one,
    though they be piercing, sharp, bitter, unpleasant, disagreeable and
    dangerous to life. The four "Trances," the mind bestowing happiness
    even here: these one may enjoy at will, without difficulty, without
    effort.
      One may enjoy the different "Magical Powers." With the "Heavenly
    Ear," the purified, the super-human, one may hear both kinds of
    sounds, the heavenly and the earthly, the distant and the near. With
    the mind one may obtain "Insight into the Hearts of Other Beings of
    other persons. One may obtain "Remembrance of many Previous Births."
    With the "Heavenly Eye," the purified, the super-human, one may see
    beings vanish and reappear, the base and the noble, the beautiful
    and the ugly, the happy and the unfortunate; one may perceive how
    beings are reborn according to their deeds.
      One may, through the "Cessation of Passions," come to know for
    oneself, even in this life, the stainless deliverance of mind, the
    deliverance through wisdom.

                        CONTEMPLATION OF THE FEELINGS

      But how does the disciple dwell in contemplation of the feelings?
      In experiencing feelings, the disciple knows: "I have an indifferent
    agreeable feeling," or "I have a disagreeable feeling," or "I have
    an indifferent feeling," or "I have a worldly agreeable feeling," or
    "I have an unworldly agreeable feeling," or "I have a worldly
    disagreeable feeling," or "I have an unworldly disagreeable
    feeling," or "I have a worldly indifferent feeling," or have an
    unworldly indifferent feeling.
      Thus he dwells in contemplation of the feelings, either with
    regard to his own person, or to other persons, or to both. He
    beholds how the feelings arise; beholds how they pass away; beholds
    the arising and passing away of the feelings. "Feelings are there":
    this clear consciousness is present in him, because of his knowledge
    and mindfulness; and he lives independent, unattached to anything in
    the world. Thus does the disciple dwell in contemplation of the
    feelings.
      [The disciple understands that the expression "I feel" has no
    validity except as an expression of common speech; he understands
    that, in the absolute sense, there are only feelings, and that there
    is no Ego, no person, no experience of the feelings.]

                          CONTEMPLATION OF THE MIND

      But how does the disciple dwell in contemplation of the mind? The
    disciple knows the greedy mind as greedy, and the not greedy mind as
    not greedy; knows the angry mind as angry, and the not angry mind as
    not angry; knows the deluded mind as deluded, and the undeluded mind
    as undeluded. He knows the cramped mind as cramped, and the
    scattered mind as scattered; knows the developed mind as developed,
    and the undeveloped mind as undeveloped; knows the surpassable mind as
    surpassable, and the unsurpassable mind as unsurpassable; knows the
    concentrated mind as concentrated, and the unconcentrated mind as
    unconcentrated; knows the freed mind as freed, and the unfreed mind as
    unfreed.
      ["Mind" is here used as a collective for the moments of
    consciousness. Being identical with consciousness, it should not be
    translated by "thought." "Thought" and "thinking" correspond rather to
    the so-called "verbal operations of the mind"; they are not, like
    consciousness, of primary, but of secondary nature, and are entirely
    absent in all sensuous consciousness, as well as in the second,
    third and fourth Trances.  (See eighth step).]
      Thus he dwells in contemplation of the mind, either with regard to
    his own person, or to other persons, or to both. He beholds how
    consciousness arises; beholds how it passes away; beholds the
    arising and passing away of consciousness. "Mind is there"; this clear
    consciousness is present in him, because of his knowledge and
    mindfulness; and he lives independent, unattached to anything in the
    world. Thus does the disciple dwell in contemplation of the mind.

                  CONTEMPLATION OF PHENOMENA  (Mind-objects)

      But how does the disciple dwell in contemplation of the phenomena?
    First, the disciple dwells in contemplation of the phenomen, of the
    "Five Hindrances."
      He knows when there is "Lust" in him: "In me is lust"; knows when
    there is "Anger" in him: "In me is anger"; knows when there is "Torpor
    and Drowsiness" in him: "In me is torpor and drowsiness"; knows when
    there is "Restlessness and Mental Worry" in him: "In me is
    restlessness and mental worry"; knows when there are "Doubts" in
    him: "In me are doubts." He knows when these hindrances are not in
    him: "In me these hindrances are not." He knows how they come to
    arise; knows how, once arisen, they are overcome; knows how, once
    overcome, they do not rise again in the future.
      [For example, Lust arises through unwise thinking on the agreeable
    and delightful. it may be suppressed by the following six methods:
    fixing the mind upon an idea that arouses disgust; contemplation of
    the loathsomeness of the body; controlling one's six senses;
    moderation in eating; friendship with wise and good men; right
    instruction. Lust is forever extinguished upon entrance into
    Anagamiship; Restlessness is extinguished by reaching Arahatship;
    Mental Worry, by reaching Sotapanship.]
      And further: the disciple dwells in contemplation of the
    phenomena, of the five Groups of Existence. He knows what Corporeality
    is, how it arises, how it passes away; knows what Feeling is, how it
    arises, how it away; knows what Perception is, how it arises, how it
    passes away; knows what the Mental Formations are, how they arise, how
    they pass away; knows what Consciousness is, how it arises, how it
    passes away.
      And further: the disciple dwells in contemplation of the phenomena
    of the six Subjective-Objective Sense-Bases. He knows eye and visual
    objects, ear and sounds, nose and odors, tongue and tastes, body and
    touches, mind and mind objects; and the fetter that arises in
    dependence on them, he also knows. He knows how the fetter comes to
    arise, knows how the fetter is overcome, and how the abandoned
    fetter does not rise again in future.
      And further: the disciple dwells in contemplation of the phenomena
    of the seven Elements of Enlightenment. The disciple knows when
    there is Attentiveness in him; when there is Investigation of the
    Law in him; when there is Energy in him; when there is Enthusiasm in
    him; when there is Tranquility in him; when there is Concentration
    in him; when there is Equanimity in him. He knows when it is not in
    him, knows how it comes to arise, and how it is fully developed.
      And further: the disciple dwells in contemplation of the phenomena
    of the Four Noble Truths. He knows according to reality, what
    Suffering is; knows according to reality, what the Origin of Suffering
    is; knows according to reality, what the Extinction of Suffering is;
    knows according to reality, what the Path is that leads to the
    Extinction of Suffering.
      Thus he dwells in contemplation of the phenomena, either with regard
    to his own person, or to other persons, or to both. He beholds how the
    phenomena arise; beholds how they pass away; beholds the arising and
    passing away of the phenomena. "Phenomena are there this consciousness
    is present in him because of his knowledge and mindfulness; and he
    lives independent, unattached to anything in the world. Thus does
    the disciple dwell in contemplation of the phenomena.
      The only way that leads to the attainment of purity, to the
    overcoming of sorrow and lamentation, to the end of pain and grief, to
    the entering upon the right path, and the realization of Nirvana, is
    these four fundamentals of attentiveness.

                   NIRVANA THROUGH WATCHING OVER BREATHING

      "Watching over In-and Out-breathing" practiced and developed, brings
    the four Fundamentals of Attentiveness to perfection; the four
    fundamentals of attentiveness, practiced and developed bring the seven
    Elements of Enlightenment to perfection; the seven elements of
    enlightenment, practiced and developed, bring Wisdom and Deliverance
    to perfection.
      But how does Watching over In-and Out-breathing, practiced and
    developed, bring the four Fundamentals of Attentiveness to perfection?
      I. Whenever the disciple is conscious in making a long inhalation or
    exhalation, or in making a short inhalation or exhalation, or is
    training himself to inhale or exhale whilst feeling the whole
    [breath]-body,  or whilst calming down this bodily function-at such
    a time the disciple is dwelling in "contemplation of the body," of
    energy, clearly conscious, attentive, after subduing worldly greed and
    grief. For, inhalation and exhalation I call one amongst the corporeal
    phenomena.
      II. Whenever the disciple is training himself to inhale or exhale
    whilst feeling rapture, or joy, or the mental functions, or whilst
    calming down the mental functions-at such a time he is dwelling in
    "contemplation of the feelings," full of energy, clearly conscious,
    attentive, after subduing worldly greed and grief. For, the full
    awareness of in-and outbreathing I call one amongst the feelings.
      III. Whenever the disciple is training himself to inhale or exhale
    whilst feeling the mind, or whilst gladdening the mind or whilst
    concentrating the mind, or whilst setting the mind free-at such a time
    he is dwelling in "contemplation of the mind," full of energy, clearly
    conscious, attentive, after subduing worldly greed and grief. For,
    without attentiveness and clear consciousness, I say, there is no
    Watching over in-and Out-breathing.
      IV. Whenever the disciple is training himself to inhale or exhale
    whilst contemplating impermanence, or the fading away of passion, or
    extinction, or detachment at such a time he is dwelling in
    "contemplation of the phenomena," full of energy, clearly conscious,
    attentive, after subduing worldly greed and grief.
      Watching over In-and Out-breathing, thus practiced and developed,
    brings the four Fundamentals of Attentiveness to perfection.
      But how do the four Fundamentals of Attentiveness, practiced and
    developed, bring the seven Elements of Enlightenment to full
    perfection?
      Whenever the disciple is dwelling in contemplation of body, feeling,
    mind and phenomena, strenuous, clearly conscious, attentive, after
    subduing worldly greed and grief-at such a time his attentiveness is
    undisturbed; and whenever his attentiveness is present and
    undisturbed, at such a time he has gained and is developing the
    Element of Enlightenment "Attentiveness"; and thus this element of
    enlightenment reaches fullest perfection.
      And whenever, whilst dwelling with attentive mind, he wisely
    investigates, examines and thinks over the Law-at such a time he has
    gained and is developing the Element of Enlightenment "Investigation
    of the Law"; and thus this element of enlightenment reaches fullest
    perfection.
      And whenever, whilst wisely investigating, examining and thinking
    over the law, his energy is firm and unshaken-at such a time he has
    gained and is developing the Element of Enlightenment "Energy"; and
    thus this element of enlightenment reaches fullest perfection.
      And whenever in him, whilst firm in energy, arises supersensuous
    rapture-at such a time he has gained and is developing the Element
    of Enlightenment "Rapture"; and thus this element of enlightenment
    reaches fullest perfection.
      And whenever, whilst enraptured in mind, his spiritual frame and his
    mind become tranquil-at such a time he has gained and is developing
    the Element of Enlightenment "Tranquility"; and thus this element of
    enlightenment reaches fullest perfection.
      And whenever, whilst being tranquilized in his spiritual frame and
    happy, his mind becomes concentrated-at such a time he has gained
    and is developing the Element of Enlightenment "Concentration; and
    thus this element of enlightenment reaches fullest perfection.
      And whenever he thoroughly looks with indifference on his mind
    thus concentrated-at such a time he has gained and is developing the
    Element of Enlightenment "Equanimity."
      The four fundamentals of attentiveness, thus practiced and
    developed, bring the seven elements of enlightenment to full
    perfection.
      But how do the seven elements of enlightenment, practiced and
    developed, bring Wisdom and Deliverance to full perfection?
      There, the disciple is developing the elements of enlightenment:
    Attentiveness, Investigation of the Law, Energy, Rapture, Tranquility,
    Concentration and Equanimity, bent on detachment, on absence of
    desire, on extinction and renunciation.
      Thus practiced and developed, do the seven elements of enlightenment
    bring wisdom and deliverance to full perfection.
      Just as the elephant hunter drives a huge stake into the ground
    and chains the wild elephant to it by the neck, in order to drive
    out of him his wonted forest ways and wishes, his forest unruliness,
    obstinacy and violence, and to accustom him to the environment of
    the village, and to teach him such good behavior as is required
    amongst men: in like manner also has the noble disciple to fix his
    mind firmly to these four fundamentals of attentiveness, so that he
    may drive out of himself his wonted worldly ways and wishes, his
    wonted worldly unruliness, obstinacy and violence, and win to the
    True, and realize Nirvana.
                                 EIGHTH STEP
                             RIGHT CONCENTRATION

      WHAT, now, is Right Concentration? Fixing the mind to a single
    object  ("One-pointedness of mind"):  this is concentration.
      The four Fundamentals of Attentiveness  (seventh step):  these are
    the objects of concentration.
      The four Great Efforts  (sixth step):  these are the requisites
    for concentration.
      The practicing, developing and cultivating of these things: this
    is the "Development" of concentration.
      [Right Concentration has two degrees of development: 1.
    "Neighborhood-Concentration," which approaches the first trance,
    without however attaining it; 2. "Attainment Concentration," which
    is the concentration present in the four trances. The attainment of
    the trances, however, is not a requisite for the realization of the
    Four Ultramundane Paths of Holiness; and neither
    Neighborhood-Concentration nor Attainment-Concentration, as such, in
    any way possesses the power of conferring entry into the Four
    Ultramundane Paths; hence, in them is really no power to free
    oneself permanently from evil things. The realization of the Four
    Ultramundane Paths is possible only at the moment of insight into
    the impermanency, miserable nature, and impersonality of phenomenal
    process of existence. This insight is attainable only during
    Neighborhood-Concentration, not during Attainment-Concentration.
      He who has realized one or other of the Four Ultramundane Paths
    without ever having attained the Trances, is called a "Dry-visioned
    One," or one whose passions are "dried up by Insight." He, however,
    who after cultivating the Trances has reached one of the
    Ultramundane Paths, is called "one who has taken tranquility as his
    vehicle."]

                               THE FOUR TRANCES

      Detached from sensual objects, detached from unwholesome things, the
    disciple enters into the first trance, which is accompanied by "Verbal
    Though," and "Rumination," is born of "Detachment," and filled with
    "Rapture," and "Happiness."
      This first trance is free from five things, and five things are
    present. When the disciple enters the first trance, there have
    vanished  [the 5 Hindrances]:  Lust, Ill-will, Torpor and Dullness,
    Restlessness and Mental Worry, Doubts; and there are present: Verbal
    Thought, Rumination, Rapture, Happiness, and Concentration.
      And further: after the subsiding of verbal thought and rumination,
    and by the gaining of inward tranquility and oneness of mind, he
    enters into a state free from verbal thought and rumination, the
    second trance, which is born of Concentration, and filled with Rapture
    and Happiness.
      And further: after the fading away of rapture, he dwells in
    equanimity, attentive, clearly conscious; and he experiences in his
    person that feeling, of which the Noble Ones say: "Happy lives the man
    of equanimity and attentive mind"-thus he enters the third trance.
      And further: after the giving up of pleasure and pain, and through
    the disappearance of previous joy and grief, he enters into a state
    beyond pleasure and pain, into the fourth trance, which is purified by
    equanimity and attentiveness.
      [The four Trances may be obtained by means of Watching over In-and
    Out-breathing, as well as through the fourth sublime meditation, the
    "Meditation of Equanimity," and others.
        The three other Sublime Meditations of "Loving Kindness,"
    "Compassion", and "Sympathetic Joy" may lead to the attainment of
    the first three Trances. The "Cemetery Meditations," as well as the
    meditation "On Loathsomeness," will produce only the First Trance.
      The "Analysis of the Body," and the Contemplation on the Buddha, the
    Law, the Holy Brotherhood, Morality, etc., will only produce
    Neighborhood-Concentration.]
      Develop your concentration: for he who has concentration understands
    things according to their reality. And what are these things? The
    arising and passing away of corporeality, of feeling, perception,
    mental formations and consciousness.
      Thus, these five Groups of Existence must be wisely penetrated;
    Delusion and Craving must be wisely abandoned; Tranquility and Insight
    must be wisely developed.
      This is the Middle Path which the Perfect One has discovered,
    which makes one both to see and to know, and which leads to peace,
    to discernment, to enlightenment, to Nirvana.
      And following upon this path, you will put an end to suffering.

              DEVELOPMENT OF THE EIGHTFOLD PATH IN THE DISCIPLE

                 CONFIDENCE AND RIGHT-MINDEDNESS  (2nd Step)

      SUPPOSE a householder, or his son, or someone reborn in any
    family, hears the law; and after hearing the law he is filled with
    confidence in the Perfect One. And filled with this confidence, he
    thinks: "Full of hindrances is household life, a refuse heap; but
    pilgrim life is like the open air. Not easy is it, when one lives at
    home, to fulfill in all points the rules of the holy life. How, if now
    I were to cut off hair and beard, put on the yellow robe and go
    forth from home to the homeless life?" And in a short time, having
    given up his more or less extensive possessions, having forsaken a
    smaller or larger circle of relations, he cuts off hair and beard,
    puts on the yellow robe, and goes forth from home to the homeless
    life.

                        MORALITY  (3rd, 4th, 5th Step)

      Having thus left the world, he fulfills the rules of the monks. He
    avoids the killing of living beings and abstains from it. Without
    stick or sword, conscientious, full of sympathy, he is anxious for the
    welfare of all living beings.-He avoids stealing, and abstains from
    taking what is not given to him. Only what is given to him he takes,
    waiting till it is given; and he lives with a heart honest and
    pure.-He avoids unchastity, living chaste, resigned, and keeping aloof
    from sexual intercourse, the vulgar way.-He avoids lying and
    abstains from it. He speaks the truth, is devoted to the truth,
    reliable, worthy of confidence, is not a deceiver of men.-He avoids
    tale-bearing and abstains from it. What he has heard here, he does not
    repeat there, so as to cause dissension there; and what he has heard
    there, he does not repeat here, so as to cause dissension here. Thus
    he unites those that are divided, and those that are united he
    encourages; concord gladdens him, he delights and rejoices in concord,
    and it is concord that he spreads by his words.-He avoids harsh
    language and abstains from it. He speaks such words as are gentle,
    soothing to the ear, loving, going to the heart, courteous and dear,
    and agreeable to many.- He avoids vain talk and abstains from it. He
    speaks at the right time, in accordance with facts, speaks what is
    useful, speaks about the law and the disciple; his speech is like a
    treasure, at the right moment accompanied by arguments, moderate,
    and full of sense.
      He keeps aloof from dance, song, music and the visiting of shows;
    rejects flowers, perfumes, ointments, as well as every kind of
    adornment and embellishment. High and gorgeous beds he does not use.
    Gold and silver he does not accept. Raw corn and meat he does not
    accept. Women and girls he does not accept. He owns no male and female
    slaves, owns no goats, sheep, fowls, pigs, elephants, cows or
    horses, no land and goods. He does not go on errands and do the duties
    of a messenger. He keeps aloof from buying and selling things. He
    has nothing to do with false measures, metals and weights. He avoids
    the crooked ways of bribery, deception and fraud. He keeps aloof
    from stabbing, beating, chaining, attacking, plundering and
    oppressing.
      He contents himself with the robe that protects his body, and with
    the alms with which he keeps himself alive. Wherever he goes, he is
    provided with these two things; just as a winged bird, in flying,
    carries his wings along with him. By fulfilling this noble Domain of
    Morality he feels in his heart an irreproachable happiness.

                      CONTROL OF THE SENSES  (6th Step)

      Now, in perceiving a form with the eye- a sound with the ear- an
    odor with the nose- a taste with the tongue- a touch with the body- an
    object with his mind, he sticks neither to the whole, nor to its
    details. And he tries to ward off that which, by being unguarded in
    his senses, might give rise to evil and unwholesome states, to greed
    and sorrow; he watches over his senses, keep his senses under control.
    By practicing this noble "Control of the Senses" he feels in his heart
    an unblemished happiness.

              ATTENTIVENESS AND CLEAR CONSCIOUSNESS  (7th Step)

      Clearly conscious is he in his going and coming; clearly conscious
    in looking forward and backward; clearly conscious in bending and
    stretching his body; clearly conscious in eating, drinking, chewing
    and tasting; dearly conscious in discharging excrement and urine;
    clearly conscious in walking, standing, sitting, falling asleep and
    awakening; clearly conscious in speaking and keeping silent.
      Now, being equipped with this lofty Morality, equipped with this
    noble Control of the Senses, and filled with this noble "Attentiveness
    and Clear Consciousness, he chooses a secluded dwelling in the forest,
    at the foot of a tree, on a mountain, in a cleft, in a rock cave, on a
    burial ground, on a woody table-land, in the open air, or on a heap of
    straw. Having returned from his alms-round, after the meal, he sits
    himself down with legs crossed, body erect, with attentiveness fixed
    before him.

                        ABSENCE OF THE FIVE HINDRANCES

      He has cast away Lust; he dwells with a heart free from lust; from
    lust he cleanses his heart.
      He has cast away Ill-will; he dwells with a heart free from
    ill-will; cherishing love and compassion toward all living beings,
    he cleanses his heart from ill-will.
      He has cast away Torpor and Dullness; he dwells free from torpor and
    dullness; loving the light, with watchful mind, with clear
    consciousness, he cleanses his mind from torpor and dullness.
      He has cast away Restlessness and Mental Worry; dwelling with mind
    undisturbed, with heart full of peace, he cleanses his mind from
    restlessness and mental worry.
      He has cast away Doubt; dwelling free from doubt, full of confidence
    in the good, he cleanses his heart from doubt.

                           THE TRANCES  (8th Step)

      He has put aside these five Hindrances and come to know the
    paralyzing corruptions of the mind. And far from sensual
    impressions, far from unwholesome things, he enters into the Four
    Trances.

                             INSIGHT  (1st Step)

      But whatsoever there is of feeling, perception, mental formation, or
    consciousness-all these phenomena he regards as "impermanent,"
    "subject to pain," as infirm, as an ulcer, a thorn, a misery, a
    burden, an enemy, a disturbance, as empty and "void of an Ego"; and
    turning away from these things, he directs his mind towards the
    abiding, thus: "This, verily, is the Peace, this is the Highest,
    namely the end of all formations, the forsaking of every substratum of
    rebirth, the fading away of craving; detachment, extinction: Nirvana."
    And in this state he reaches the "Cessation of Passions."

                                   NIRVANA

      And his heart becomes free from sensual passion, free from the
    passion for existence, free from the passion of ignorance. "Freed am
    I!": this knowledge arises in the liberated one; and he knows:
    "Exhausted is rebirth, fulfilled the Holy Life; what was to be done,
    has been done; naught remains more for this world to do."

                     Forever am I liberated,
                     This is the last time that I'm born,
                     No new existence waits for me.

      This, verily, is the highest, holiest wisdom: to know that all
    suffering has passed away.
      This, verily, is the highest, holiest peace: appeasement of greed,
    hatred and delusion.

                              THE SILENT THINKER

      "I am" is a vain thought; "I am not" a vain thought; "I shall be" is
    a vain thought; "I shall not be" is a vain thought. Vain thoughts
    are a sickness, an ulcer, a thorn. But after overcoming all vain
    thoughts, one is called silent thinker." And the thinker, the Silent
    One, does no more arise, no more pass away, no more tremble, no more
    desire. For there is nothing in him that he should arise again. And as
    he arises no more, how should he grow old again? And as he grows no
    more old, how should he die again? And as he dies no more, how
    should he tremble? And as he trembles no more, how should he have
    desire?

                                THE TRUE GOAL

      Hence, the purpose of the Holy Life does not consist in acquiring
    alms, honor, or fame, nor in gaining morality, concentration, or the
    eye of knowledge. That unshakable deliverance of the heart: that,
    verily, is the object of the Holy Life, that is its essence, that is
    its goal.
      And those, who formerly, in the past, were Holy and Enlightened
    Ones, those Blessed Ones also have pointed out to their disciples this
    self-same goal, as has been pointed out by me to my disciples. And
    those, who afterwards, in the future, will be Holy and Enlightened
    Ones, those Blessed Ones also will point out to their disciples this
    self-same goal, as has been pointed out by me to my disciples.
      However, Disciples, it may be that  (after my passing away)  you
    might think: "Gone is the doctrine of our Master. We have no Master
    more." But you should not think; for the Law and the Discipline, which
    I have taught you, Will, after my death, be your master.

                      The Law be your light,
                      The Law be your refuge!
                      Do not look for any other refuge!

      Disciples, the doctrines, which I advised you to penetrate, you
    should well preserve, well guard, so that this Holy Life may take
    its course and continue for ages, for the weal and welfare of the
    many, as a consolation to the world, for the happiness, weal and
    welfare of heavenly beings and men.
                                        THE END