The habitable world described: or the present state of the people in all parts of the globe, from north to south; shewing the situation, extent, climate, ... including all the new discoveries: ... With a great variety of maps and copper-plates, ... By the Rev. Dr. John Trusler. ... [pt.20]

Table of contents

- [frontispiece]

- [titlepage]

- A DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF SPAIN, CONTINUED.

- CHAP. IX. CONTINUED OF MADRID.

- CHAP. X. Of the Escurial, Aranjuez, Ildefonso, and other Pa laces, together with the Court.

- CHAP. XI. Of Toledo, and its Environs.

- CHAP. XII. Of the Province of Old Castille.

- CHAP. XIII. Of Leon, &c.

- CHAP. XIV. Asturias and Gallicia.

- CHAP. XVI. Kingdoms of Murcia and Granada.

- CHAP. XVIII. Of the Province or Kingdom of Cordova, and Andalusia.

- CHAP. XX. Constitution and Government.

- CHAP. XXI. On the Finances, Population, and General State of the Kingdom.

- CHAP. XXII. Army, Military Orders, and Navy.

- CHAP. XXIII. The Bull-fights.

- A DESCRIPTION OF THE KINGDOM OF PORTUGAL, From BARETTI, FIELDING, and others.

- CHAP. I. Country, Climate, Mountains, Rivers, &c.

- CHAP. II. Of the Cities.

- CHAP. III. People, Dress, Character, Customs, Manners, &c.

- CHAP. IV. Commerce, Manufactures, &c.

- CHAP. V. History, Constitution, Government, &c.

- CHAP. VI. State of Literature.

- CHAP. VII. Religion.

- DIRECTIONS FOR PLACING THE CUTS, From Vol. XV. to the End.

- [illustration]

- [map]

- [map]

- [map]

End of the Twentieth Volume.

The REVOLUTION of PORTUGAL 1640.

THE HABITABLE WORLD DESCRIBED, OR THE PRESENT STATE OF THE PEOPLE IN ALL PARTS OF THE GLOBE, FROM NORTH TO SOUTH; SHEWING The Situation, Extent, Climate, Production, Animals, & &c. of the different Kingdoms and States.

Including all the New Discoveries: TOGETHER WITH The Genius, Manners, Customs, Trade, Religion, Forms of Government, &c. of the Inhabitants, and every thing respecting them, that can be either entertaining or informing to the Reader, collected from the earliest and latest Accounts of Historians and Travellers of all Nations; With some that have never been published in this Kingdom; And nothing advanced but on the best Authorities.

WITH A great Variety of MAPS and COPPER-PLATES, engraved in a capital Style, the Subjects of which are new, and such as have never yet been given in any English work.

BY THE REV. DR. JOHN TRUSLER

VOL. XX.

London: Printed for the AUTHOR, and sold by L. LEGOUX, No. 52, Poland Street, Oxford Road, and all Booksellers.

M,DCC,XCVII.

A DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF SPAIN, CONTINUED.

CHAP. IX. CONTINUED OF MADRID.

THE rich subjects of Spain, concentrate all their pleasures within the capital. Music and dancing are the two for which the Spaniards have the greatest predilection. They have also their Tertulias and Refrescos. The tertulias are assemblies very similar to those of France. Women, in general, seek not many occasions to assemble; each aspires to be the center of a tertusia. Women are there admired, and even adored, as well as elsewhere; but when they inspire not a lively sentiment, the men seldom pay them those attentions which French politeness prodigally bestows on every individual of the fair-sex. It is not in the reciprocal communication of tenderness, that the manners are softened. On the contrary, it is in the disinterested association of the two sexes, that the necessity and desire of pleasing arises, which forms the charm and cement of society.

Their Refrescos, the invention of luxury and greediness, contribute, no less than the tertulias, to facilitate the intercourse of the sexes. In general these are only slight repasts, prepared for persons from whom visits are received, and as a prelude to the tertulias; but on extraordinary occasions, as a wedding, christening, or celebrating the birth-day of the head of the family, the refresco becomes an important, and expensive affair. All the friends of the family are invited, and, as they arrive, the men separate from the women. The lady of the house receives them under a canopy, over which is suspended an image of the virgin. The appearance of the refresco at length enlivens every countenance, conversation becomes more animated, and the sexes approach each other. The company are first presented with large glasses of water, in which little sugar-loaves are dissolved; these are succeeded by chocolate, the favourite refreshment, twice a-day of the Spaniards, and believed to be so nourishing and innocent, as not to be refused even to the sick. After the chocolate come all sorts of confectionary.

It is scarcely possible to conceive the profusion with which these delicacies are distributed. The company is not only cloyed with them, but their hats, their handkerchiefs, and pockets, are loaded with them.

A ball or card-tables commonly succeed the refresco, but these entertainments are seldom concluded with a supper. This is always a frugal repast, with the Spaniards, at which they rarely assemble.

Baretti's account of their assemblies is rather different. "It is a custom, (says he) among the Spanish ladies, to send invitations to their friends to come and see them; some even several times a month, others not so often. When a lady intends this, she sends word to her female acquaintance that, on such an evening she shall have a tertulia. The lady who receives this message tells the gentlemen of her acquaintance that, on such an evening, she shall go to the tertulia of such a lady, which is considered as an invitation. To one of these (says the above writer) I was invited. On alighting from the carriage, the servants who rode behind with flambeaux, lighted us up a large stair-case, there being no porter at the gate as in England. The master of the house received us at the door of his apartment, and handed the lady that was with us into that where his wife was, with the other ladies who were assembled. My friend who conducted me, and myself, were then introduced into a room full of gentlemen, almost all dressed in laced coats.— Some were sitting, others standing, and either gazing or talking about them, as is usual in large companies. Presently some servants, after having been round to the ladies, brought us in some refreshments. The manner of serving them was singular. A footman first gave each person a silver plate; another followed him with silver salvers, loaded with biscuits made of sugar, hollow like a spunge, and extremely light. Each of us took one, with a glass of lemonade, upon being dipped into which it instantly dissolved. Chocolate was then distributed, which being drank, the servants came round for the cups and silver plates.

"We then continued a little longer in conversation, when behold! the lady of the house came out of her apartment, followed by all those who were with her. We formed ourselves into two rows, one on each side of them. None of the ladies passed by without having something respectful or affectionate said to them, their answers to which were in the same strain. At the end of the room where we were was another, into which the ladies entered without any ceremony, whether young or old, married or unmarried.

"As soon as they were entered we followed, and found them all sitting on the estrado, which is a continued seat, all round the room, close to the wall. In a corner of this room was a large table, covered with dishes, filled with various eatables. A large Perigord-pasty in the middle; a couple of roasted turkies on the sides of the pasty; with hams, fowls, game, sausages, sallads, caparonnes, (a kind of capers, as big as filberts), &c. &c. In short, this was a cold collation, as plentiful as it was elegant.

"The master of the house, with the assistance of some of the guests, immediately began to carve, whilst the rest of us, snatching napkins from a heap, lying on another table, ran and spread them on the ladies' knees, then went back for plates, knives and forks, and then to get such victuals as we were desired to bring; stooping or kneeling by them whilst they were eating, and amusing them in the best manner we could; saying whatever came uppermost, with such hilarity and pleasantness that no scene could be more delightful. No servant was permitted to wait at this kind of supper. The ladies all ate heartily, and the greater part of them drank water.

This merry meal being ended, they went from this room into a much larger, the lady of the house preceding as before. They were no sooner gone than we fell on the remnants with a cheerfulness no where to be met with but in this country. The rule is, to have a concert or cards after supper. About eleven the company begin to steal away, alla Spagnola; that is, without giving the least warning of their going, either to the master or mistress of the house.

The desire that men and women have here of passing their time in each other's company is so very eager, that it appears a kind of rage, especially to a person who has lived long in England, where men of all ranks seem ashamed to hang too long about the fair, and where the generality deprive themselves, every day, of their company, during several hours, merely for the sake of talking politics, or circulating the bottle.

Many are the methods that both sexes have contrived in order to spend as much of their time as possible together.

Baretti tells us, that every great man's doors are always open, and any of his acquaintance may walk up into his chambers to find him. It is only necessary to knock at the chamber door; ladies will receive even their male visitants in their beds, sitting up, bolstered with pillars, and drinking their chocolate with a small table before them, the company sitting round the bed on stools. When she wishes to rise, she desires them to withdraw, and then receives them again at her toilette. Baretti made a visit of this kind one morning, to Donna Paula, a woman of fashion; and after she was dressed, she asked him to take a ride with her.

One of the servants out of livery, got into the coach, and on seeming surprised, was told in French, such was the fashion, and that no femme comme il faut ever went alone with a gentleman, not even with her husband. This privileged servant bears the title of page. Donna Paula's kept as close as he could to the corner of the coach, not to obstruct our view through the front glass, and never failed to cross himself, in passing by a cross.

Upon my enquiry if the ladies of Madrid had so far adopted the system of some Italian districts, as to have Cicisbeos under the denomination of Cortejos, she told me, they had so far improved upon that mode, as to divide their male friends into three classes, called Anos, Estrechos, and Santos. These names being frequently met with in Spanish writers, it may not be amiss to give some explanation of them.

It is the general custom then, for a large circle of acquaintance to meet on the last day of the year, in the evening, to draw the Anos. All the names of the ladies and gentlemen present, whether married or not, are written on slips of paper, and thrown, the gentlemens into one hat, and the ladies into another. The youngest person in company, then draws a gentleman's name with one hand, and a lady's with the other. The two persons thus drawn, are to be Anos during the next twelve months. That is, a lady's Ano acquires a kind of right to be oftener in her company, than he would otherwise have been. He enters her house at any hour, dines with her without previous invitation; pays her a regular courtship, and in short, becomes in a manner, one of her family.

There is no other difference, continued Donna Paula, between the Anos and the Estrechos, but that the Anos are chosen on the last day of the year, and the Estrechos on the twelfth night. Each Estrecho's name is also drawn with a Copla, or Sequedilla, of which there are innumerable, composed by our wits for the purpose, and bought ready printed. Estrecho, means a close friend. As to the Santos, they are little different from the Anos and Estrechos. They are likewise drawn on Christmas eve, but instead of Coplas, or Sequedillas, we draw them with the names of saints, from which circumstance, they have their name; to the saint that comes out with the lady's name, the gentleman drawn with her, is to pay particular devotion during that year, and so the lady, to that which is drawn with the gentleman's name.

Notwithstanding this custom, says Donna Paula, the ladies of Madrid make good wives; nor is there any place in Europe, where husbands are more gallant, fathers more affectionate, and friends more respectful. You will see and hear men and women behave and talk to each other very lovingly, but scarce ever find a gentleman téte á téte with any of us. This is no custom of ours. Consider our method of living. Not only our gates, but every door in our apartments is open from morning to night. All our friends and acquaintances come in and go out without asking leave, and our many servants are allowed to enter our rooms as freely as ourselves, so that those ladies who intend to carry on an intrigue, must alter the usual mode of Spanish living, which cannot be easily done, without incurring censure, and making themselves the talk of the town.

During the whole of my residence in Spain, says Townsend, I never heard of jealousy in a husband, nor could I ever learn for certain, that such a thing existed; yet in the conduct of many ladies, whether it proceeds from the remains of delicacy, from a sense of propriety, or from fear, caution, circumspection, and reserve, it is evidently apparent, when their husbands are in sight. Some have address enough to keep the cortejo in concealment; and this in Spain, is attended with no great difficulty, because, when the ladies go to mass, they are so disguised, as not to be easily distinguished. Their dress upon that occasion, is peculiar to the country. They all put on the basquina, or black silk petticoat, and the mantilla, which serves the double purpose of a cloak and veil, so as completely, if required, to hide the face. Thus disguised, they are at liberty to go when they please. But should they be attended by a servant, he is to be gained, and therefore he becomes little or no restraint. Besides this, every part of the house is so accessible by day, and the husband is so completely nobody at home, so seldom visible, and if visible, so perfectly a stranger to those who visit in his family, that the lover may easily escape unnoticed.

This, however, will not always satisfy the Spanish ladies, who, being quick of sensibility, and remarkable for strong attachment, are miserable when their cortejo is out of sight. He must be present every moment in the day, whether in private or public, in health or sickness, and must be every where invited to attend them. There have been recent examples of women of high fashion, who have shut themselves up for months, during the absence of their cortejos; and this not merely from disgust, but to avoid giving offence to them. If the lady is at home, he is at her side; when she walks out, she leans upon his arm; when she takes her seat at an assembly, an empty chair is always left for him; and if she joins in the country dances, it is commonly with him. As every lady dances two minuets at a ball, the first is with her cortejo, the second with a stranger; with the former, if she has any vivacity, she makes it visible, and if she can move with grace, it then appears; but with the latter, she shews not only indifference, but disgust, and seems to look upon her partner with disdain.

As soon as any lady marries, she is teazed by numerous competitors for this distinguished favour, till she is fixed in her choice; when the unsuccessful candidates either retire, or submit to become in future, what may be called cortejos of the brasier, without any pretensions beyond that of setting round the embers to warm themselves in winter.

It is reckoned disgraceful to be fickle; yet innumerable instances are seen, of ladies who change their lovers often. In this, there is a natural progress; for it cannot be imagined, that women of superior understanding, early in life distinguished for delicacy of sentiment, for prudence, and for the elevation of their minds, should hastily arrive at the extreme, where passion triumphs, and all regard to decency is lost. As for others, they soon finish the career. It is, however, humiliating to see some who appear to have been designed by nature, to command reverence, at last degraded and sunk so low in the opinion of the world, as to be never mentioned, but with contempt. These have changed so often, and have been so unfaithful to every engagement, that universally despised, they end with having no cortejo.

Though jealousy is seldom, if ever, to be discovered in a husband; this cannot be said in favour of the 〈◊〉 connection, because both parties are tormented by suspicion. This is natural, for as there is no other bond between them, but the pre ••••ou••i• of mutual affection, each must tremble at the approach of any one, who might interrupt their union. Hence they are constantly engaged in watching each others looks, and for want of confidence, renounce, in a great measure, the charms of social intercourse. Even in public, they seem to think themselves alone, abstracted and absorbed, attentive only to each other. He must not take notice of any other lady; and if any gentleman would converse with her, in a few minutes she appears confused, and filled with fear of having given offence. In all probability she has, and should she be the first duchess in the kingdom, and he only a subaltern in the army, she may be treated with personal indignity, and we have heard of one who was dragged by the hair about the room. But if instead of giving, she should happen to have taken the offence, even the most delicate will fly like a tygress at his eyes, and beat him in the face till he is black and blue. It sometimes happens, that a lady, weary of her first choice, her fancy has fixed on some new object, and she wishes to change, but the former, whose vanity is flattered by the connection, is not willing to dissolve it. In lower life, this moment gives occasion to many of those assassinations, which abound in Spain; but in the higher classes, among whom the dagger is procribed, the first possessor, if a man of spirit maintains possession, and the lady dare not discard him, lest an equal combat should prove fatal to the man of her affections. In this contest, the husband is out of sight, and tells for nothing.

In a catholic country, with such depravity of morals, it may naturally be enquired, what becomes of conscience, and where is discipline? It is well known, that all are under obligation to confess, at least once a year, before they receive the Eucharist. Every one is at liberty to choose his confessor and priest, but before he leaves the altar, he takes a certificate he has been there, and this he delivers to the curate of his own parish, under pain of excommunication, should he fail to do so. When therefore, a married woman appears, year after year, before her confessor, to acknowledge that she has been, and still continues to be living in adultery, how can he grant absolution, or how can he be moderate in the penance he enjoins. Without penance, and unless the priest is satisfied that there is contrition, with full purpose of amendment, there can be no absolution; without absolution, no participation of the eucharist, and in the neglect of this, excommunication follows. Yet, from the universal prevalence of this offence, we may be certain, that there must be some way of evading the rigour of the law. Nothing is more easy. As for the penance, it is imposed by those who can have compassion on the frailties of mankind, and is therefore scarcely worthy to be mentioned. In many instances, it is ridiculous. Were any confessor severe, he would have few at his confessional. The absolution is commonly a more serious business; because the penitent must not only testify contrition, but give some token of amendment, by obtaining at least for a season, from the commission of the crime, which is the subject matter of confession. The first absolution may easily be obtained; but when the offender comes year after year with the same confession, if he will obtain absolution, he must change his confessor; and this practice is not only disgraceful, but sometimes ineffectual. Here then it is needful to adopt some new expedient. Two naturally present themselves, for either some priest, destitute of principle, may be found, who, for certain considerations, will furnish billets; or else, which is a prevalent practice at Madrid, the common prostitutes confessing and receiving the holy sacrament in many churches, and collecting a number of billets, either sell or give them to their friends: and as these carry neither name nor signature, they are easily transferred.

The principal cortejos in the great cities, are the canons of the cathedrals; but where the military reside, they take their choice, and leave the refuse for the church. In the country villages, the monks bear rule, at least within their limits, and even in the cities, they set up their pretensions. As for the parochial clergy, one thing is certain, that many of them have families, and all are involved in the common censure.

This universal depravity of morals, may be traced to the celibacy of the clergy. It is true, the example of the court has given a sanction to practices, which were before restrained, and made that honourable, which had been attended with disgrace: but the effect must always, in some measure, have been coeval with its cause. Nay, should we be inclined to blame in the first instance, the Italians, who are said to have brought this practice into Spain, we should be obliged to trace it up to this mistaken principle, that, conjugal affection is inconsistent with a due discharge of the ministerial functions.

This principle is absurd, yet upon it is founded the celibacy of the clergy, and from that is necessarily derived the corruption of their morals. The purpose of the law is, however, frustrated; for nature is like a rapid river, which, checked in its progress, scorns restraint, and when diverted from its proper course, either overflows the country, or forms new channels for itself. What then is gained? The parochial clergy, and these are the only clergy who should be suffered in a state, have their connections and their children, but not as they ought, in the most honourable way. They are disgraced in the eyes of the people, who are taught, by their example, to live in violation of the laws; and their children, for want of a proper education, are fitted only for the vilest offices in the community. How different is the picture, where marriage is allowed. The minister is like the father of his parish, and his wife performs the office of a mother; both set an example of virtue, and in every village, teach the peasants how to value their domestic comforts. In the street, their children, commonly a numerous offspring, are distinguished by their look of health, by their cleanliness, and by the decency of their conduct; and when sent out into the world, they form the most valuable members of society.

The play-houses in Madrid, are not much frequented; the genius of the people does not assimilate with this sort of amusement. This will evidently appear, by the receipts of two theatres; for taking the average between them in December, they each produced 50 pounds a night, though some evenings less than 20 pounds, and even in the Christmas week, not more than 16. They have lately introduced the opera, though not with any prospect of success, because most of the genteel people keep to their own societies, except when they attend the balls.

Few people here discover any love for the sciences. Though the cabinet of natural history is open to all the world, it is little frequented: nor are books much read. All who are not engaged in business, are occupied in their attendance on the ladies, with whom nothing of this kind is heard of.

When you pay a visit to a lady, for wherever there is a lady in a family, the visit is to her, you neither knock at the door, nor ask any questions of the porter, but go straight forward to the room, where she usually receives her company, and there you seldom fail to find her, morning, noon, or night; in winter sitting near the brasier, surrounded by her friends, unless when she is gone out to mass. The friends are mostly gentlemen, because ladies seldom visit in a familiar way; and of the gentlemen thus assembled, the cortejo is commonly one, though this is not universally the case.

The modes of France have reached Spain as well as many other countries. French cloths and the fashions and colours approved in France, are worn under the Spanish cloak. The veil is no longer worn, but by women of the lowest classes; for others it serves but to hide the disorder of their dress, when they go out on foot. Except in this case, their headdress, and whole attire, are carefully adjusted to French fashions.

Their cookery, such as they received it from their ancestors, is of a nature to please few people. They are fond of high seasonings; pepper, pimento, and saffron, season or colour most of their dishes. One of them only, has been introduced among strangers, and the art of the French kitchen has not disdained to adopt it; this is, what in Spain is called olla-podrida, a sort of hotch-potch of every kind of meat, cooked together. There is, however, generally a mixture in the Spanish cookery, participating of the French sort, and in some, this has wholly supplanted that of Spain.

The Spaniards have phrases of address, that would sound odd in all other languages. When a gentleman approaches a lady, he does not tell her that he is her humble servant, her most obedient, as is the usual mode of address in England, France, or Italy, but that he kisses her feet, or lays himself at her feet, and when he takes his leave, he entreats her to keep him at her feet, or under her feet: me tenga usted a sus piés, or baxo de sus piés. The compliment she returns is, may you live a thousand years, or, God go with you, or, the Virgin Mary go with you; and when she intends respect, says, Beso a usted las manos, i. e. she kisses his hands. These civilities may appear a great deal too lofty; but general custom takes off much from the literal meaning of complimentary words in all countries.

Provisions in this town are not so dear as might be expected, considering its populousness, and its being situated in a province naturally barren. A poor family, of six or seven people, may be supplied with bread, meat and wine, for as many reals. The common fare of the lower class is fresh mutton, and salted pork, boiled with French-beans, chick-peas, onions, and pot-herbs. On meagre days they live on stock-fish and pilchards, dressed in various manners, but always so much spiced that it is not easy for strangers to accustom themselves to such a burning dish. The poorest class of all live almost entirely on the distribution of victuals which many convents make here every day throughout the year. Here the beggar makes sure of a loaf and a mess of broth, enriched often with a slice of meat.

With regard to the tables of the rich, they are as sumptuous as in any country whatever. A grandee of the first class will frequently spend one half of his income for the maintenance of his table. The single article of fish has been known to stand some noblemen in full £2000 a-year.

The two dearest articles in Madrid are wood and charcoal. A hundred pounds weight of each costs near a crown. This is the reason, perhaps, that there are so few chimnies to be seen in Madrid. The poor stand basking in the sun in winter, wrapped up to their chins in their large capas, and the rich sit round a brazier, placed in the middle of the room, with well-lighted charcoal.

CHAP. X. Of the Escurial, Aranjuez, Ildefonso, and other Palaces, together with the Court.

HAVING taken a very distinct view of the buildings, manners, and customs of the capital, we shall proceed to the royal palaces in the environs; and, in treating of them will give some account of the court.

Amongst these, the Escurial claims our first notice. The whole building consists of a palace, a church, a convent, and a burial-place for the sovereigns of Spain. The etymology of the word Escurial, is a place full of rocks, and the nature of the country agrees perfectly with it. This famous monastery is seated in a deep recess, at the foot of those high mountains separating the two Castilles; and protected from every wind, except the southeast; it looks down upon a wide extended plain, with all the neighbouring hills, covered by thick woods; whilst the mountains, to the north, are bare, or covered almost perpetually with snow.

It was built by Philip II. in obedience to his father Charles V. to accomplish his vow, made after the battle of St. Quintin, which he gained by the intercession of St. Lorenzo. In honour of that saint the architect, Juan de Bautista de Toledo, took his idea from a gridiron, the instrument on which he suffered, making the royal residence project, by way of handle, and representing not only the bars by multiplied divisions, but the legs by four high towers, placed in the angles of this edifice.

In Spain the building goes by the name of this saint. The choice which Philip V. made of this steep situation, indicates the savage and melancholy character which history gives to that prince. This building is quadrangular, with the principal front to the west, behind which is a mountain; the opposite front, facing Madrid, takes the form of the shortened handle of a gridiron reversed. It is an amazing structure, and has the appearance of a town. In the whole it certainly has something awful, but does not perfectly correspond with the idea formed of it, according to the accounts received. Its form does not permit the architect to make the most of its vast extent, and it is not till we have passed the numerous dormitories, and wandered among the courts, stair-cases, and galleries, that the imagination completes what, at first view, was only sketched.

In the architecture there is nothing magnificent. It has rather the serious simplicity of a convent, than the splendid elegance of a palace. The front, to the west, has a fine portal, formed by large columns, of the Doric order; and on each side two great doors of noble dimensions. By this portal we pass to an elegant square court, at the bottom of which is a church. This principal entrance is never open, even for the kings of Spain and the princes of the blood, but on two solemn occasions. When they come the first time to the Escurial, and when their remains are deposited in the vault which awaits them. "I could not but imagine (says Bourgoannè) on viewing this entrance, but that I perceived the emblems of the gates of life and those of eternity, which, for the children of kings, as well as for the rest of mortals, open but once, and immediately shut again for ever."

The front, to the south, is entirely destitute of ornament, but in the four stories there are nearly 300 windows. The whole edifice is built with hewn stone, of a species of bastard granite; which, being become brown with time, adds to the austerity of the building. The quarry where it was dug, in the neighbourhood of the Escurial, is said to have been one motive for the choice of its situation. It furnished blocks of such considerable dimension, that three stones were sufficient to form the chambranle of the greatest doorways, and each step of the principal stair-case is composed but of one.

At the first sight of the Escurial, it conveys the idea of a square quarry of stone, above ground; for it is indeed the largest, though not the most elegant building in Europe. The dimensions are 657 feet in breadth, and the sides 494 feet in depth. Twiss, from whom we have made this extract, says he measured it himself. The height is 70 feet.

The chief front has 35 windows in breadth. It is said there are 4000 windows, and 8000 doors in the building; 1110 of these windows are on the outside of the four fronts.

When the court is not at the Escurial, it is but a vast convent, inhabited by 200 monks, under the inspection of a prior. At the arrival of the court the convent is transformed into a palace. The monks are banished to the south and west sides, and the principal cells become the habitation of the royal family, and the nobility and gentry by whom it is accompanied. The king himself has his in the narrow space which forms the handle of the gridiron. Philip II. seems to have wished to make this a retreat where sovereign greatness might retire to hide itself beneath the shade of the altars, and become familiarised to its tomb; and its successors, faithful to this vow of humility, still content themselves with the same modest habitation.

To connoisseurs in painting no place can afford higher entertainment than the convent of the Escurial. In every part are seen works of the best masters, and even some of their most capital performances. It were endless to enumerate particulars. Suffice it to say, that during the residence of a month I never failed a single day visiting the convent, and never left it without regret. I had peculiar pleasure in finding here so many monuments of Titian, and a Holy Family by Raphael; the latter once in the possession of our Charles I. but sold by Cromwell, and purchased by the Spanish ambassador for £2000.

The statues, busts, and medallions of the Escurial, are not in any great number, nor very remarkable for their excellence. St. Laurence, in the church, is good and simple. Many have taken it for an antique; but the only part likely to be so is the head, and that is suspected to have belonged to a Bacchus.

Never was an instrument of martyrdom so multiplied, so honoured, and so celebrated, as the gridiron. They are to be met with in every part of this building; there are sculptured gridirons, painted gridirons, iron gridirons, marble gridirons, wooden gridirons, and stucco gridirons; there are gridirons over the doors, in the yards, in the windows, and in the galleries.

The Escurial, as a residence, is far from pleasant. Were it low and sheltered, like Aranjuez, it would be agreeable in spring; or, were it elevated, hanging to the north, and covered by thick woods, like S. Ildefonso, it might be delightful as a retreat in summer; but, exposed as it is to the full power of the meridian sun, and raised up nearly to regions covered with eternal snow, without shelter, and destitute of shade, it has no local charms at any season of the year. The ministers, foreign and domestic, give good dinners, and do every thing to make this solitude supportable; but, as few ladies can be accommodated here, the assemblies want that gaiety which is peculiar to the sex.

The pantheon, or catacomb, where the royal family, beginning with Charles V. are buried, is a subterranean vault, of beautiful marble, highly finished, capable of receiving 26 bodies, each in its own recess. It is impossible not to feel a kind of religious awe when we descend into this vault, in which deceased grandeur seems to struggle against annihilation. A few rays of half-extinguished light, with difficulty penetrate this cold abode. To supply the defect, a superb lustre, pendant from the cupola, is lighted up on extraordinary occasions; but, except in these cases, the curious are conducted by a flambeau, into the middle of this motionless and silent assembly of sovereigns of both sexes.

By the unsteady light of the flambeau we discover, opposite the door by which we enter, an altar and a crucifix of black marble, upon a pedestal of porphyry. The rest corresponds to this melancholy magnificence. The cases which contain the bodies of the kings and queens are placed on each side of the altar. The pantheon is not yet full, but the empty cases are open, ready to receive their deposits. A salutary, yet terrible lesson, which kings have not refused to receive, from the bold designs of an able architect.

The ravages of time, seconded by the damps, have not spared even the marble. Here we are at once led to reflect on the frailty of man, whatever may be his rank, and the perishable nature of his works, which in his pride he dares consecrate to immortality.

The Friars of this convent, says Townsend, are 160, and their annual revenue is 5,000,000 of reals, or about 50,000 pounds, arising partly from land, and partly from their flock of 36,000 Marino sheep, besides 1000 kept constantly near home for the consumption of the family.

Their library consists of 30,000 volumes, contained in two magnificent apartments, each about 182 English feet in length. In the lower room are chiefly printed books; yet, in it is deposited the famous manuscript of the Four Gospels, written in gold letters, a work of the eleventh century. Over these are collected 4300 manuscripts, of which 567 are Greek, 67 Hebrew, and 1800 Arabic, the latter well described in a catalogue lately published by Casiri.

The library is open every morning and evening, during the residence of the court. If, says Bourgoanne, you have brought with you to the Escurial, prejudices against the Spaniards in general, or against the Monks in particular, you will certainly lay them aside after having passed a quarter of an hour with the Jeronymites of this monastery; you will be convinced that, under the Spanish mantle, or even the religious habit, more obliging manners, more complaisance, and more real goodness are concealed, than are promised by the elegance of a French dress. For the truth of what I here say, I may appeal to two Danish professors, who, a few years ago, were sent to the Escurial to make learned researches, and were, perhaps, better received by the Monks, notwithstanding the difference of manners, language, and religion, than they would have been at the University of Copenhagen. They were lodged in the convent, and provided with every thing they could wish, with the most generous hospitality.

All the treasures of the library were open to them, and they passed two months in examining and making extracts from the manuscripts which excited their curiosity. They returned home with hearts deeply impressed with gratitude, and Port-folios enriched with the fruits of their laborious researches.

The obliging generosity they experienced on this occasion, was the more remarkable, as the manuscripts, entrusted to their inspection, are still unknown to the public, except by a few extracts only, says Bourgoanne, given of them by a learned Monk, named Cassiri.

These consist of two volumes, in folio, but are far from completing the extensive plan proposed by the Monk. After his death, they were consigned to another of the fathers of the Escurial, and the learned impatiently expect the result of his labours.

The situation of St. Ildefonso, upon the declivity of the mountains, separating the two Castiles, and fronting a vast plain, where there is no obstacle to the passage of the North wind, renders this abode delightful in summer. The mornings and evenings of the hottest days, are agreeably cool. Yet, as this palace is upwards of 20 leagues from Madrid, and half of the road leading to it crosses the broad tops of mountains, extremely steep in many places, it is much more agreeable to the lovers of the chace, and solitude, than to others. The court of Spain comes here annually, during the heat of the dog days. It arrives about the end of July, and returns at the beginning of October.

There is nothing magnificent in the palace, particularly in its exterior appearance. The front, on the side of the garden, is of the Corinthian order, and not destitute of elegance. It is two stories high, contains 31 windows in view, and 12 rooms in a suite. In the middle is the church. The gardens are on a slope, on the top of which is the great reservoir of water, called here, el mar, i. e. the sea; which supplies the fountains: this reservoir is furnished from the torrents which pour down the mountains. The great entry is somewhat similar to that of Versailles, and with a large iron pallisade. In the gardens are 27 fountains; the basons are of white marble, and the statues, which are all excellent, and equal to any of the kind even in Italy, are of lead, bronzed and gilt. Here are two noble cascades, of ten falls each. These gardens are also ornamented with 61 very fine marble statues, as large as life, with 28 marble vases, and 20 leaden vases gilt. For the diversions of the younger branches of the royal family, there is a mall of 580 paces in length. Near which is a large labyrinth. The gardens were laid out by a Frenchman, named Bouteleux. The fountain of fame, which is the lowest in situation, spouts water to the height of 133 feet, which is exactly that of the weather-cock, on the top of the church steeple.

The upper part of the palace contains many valuable paintings, and the lower part antique statues, busts, and bas-reliefs. All the rooms have their ceilings painted in fresco, and decorated with large looking-glasses, made here. The floors are all of chequered marble, and the tables of the finest Spanish marbles, of various sorts. The windows, which reach from the ceiling to the floor, consist of large plates of glass, set in lead, gilt.

It is singular that the castle, and magnificent gardens of St. Ildefonso, should have cost about 45,000,000 of piastres, or near 6,500,000 sterling, precisely the sum in which Philip died indebted. This enormous expence will appear credible, when it is known that the situation of the royal palace was, at the beginning of this century, the sloping top of a pile of rocks; that it was necessary to dig, and hew out the stones, and, in several places, to level the rocks; to cut out of its sides, a passage for a hundred different canals, to carry vegetative earth to every place in which it was intended to substitute cultivation for sterility, and to work a mine to clear a passage to the roots of the numerous trees, which are there planted. All these efforts were crowned with success. In the orchards, kitchen gardens, and pastures, there are but few flowers, espaliers or plants, which do not thrive; but the trees, naturally of a lofty growth, and, which, consequently must strike their roots deep in the earth, already prove the insufficiency of art, when attempting to struggle against nature. Many of them languish with withered trunks, and with difficulty keep life in their almost naked branches. Every year it is necessary to call in the aid of gun-powder, to make new beds for those which are to supply their place; and none of them are covered with that tufted foliage which belongs only to those that grow in a natural soil. In a word, there are, in the groves of St. Ildefonso, marble statues, basons, cascades, limpid waters, verdure, and delightful prospects; in short, every thing but that which would be more charming than all the rest, thick shades.

At the distance of a quarter of a league from this royal mansion, runs a little river, (the Eresma,) made for the innocent pleasures of the sovereign. The banks have on each side a causeway, or when the ground requires them, there are stone, or sod steps. It is enclosed between two piles of rocks, grouped in the most romantic manner. Its limpid waters sometimes run tumultuously over lesser rocks in the bed of the river, or precipitate themselves by natural cascades, sometimes form small basons, serving as asylums to the trout, where the king occasionally fishes. Readers, if ever you should reside for some time at St. Ildefonso, and find yourself wearied with the dull magnificence, on the bank of this river is one of the finest English gardens nature ever formed.

The court of Spain goes once a year to alarm the Naiades of this stream, by the noise of a general deer-hunting. The rendezvous is on the banks of this little river, about a league from St. Ildefonso. Some days previous to the arrival of the court, a number of peasants are sent to the neighbouring woods and hills, to drive before them the deer, with which the country plentifully abounds. The prescribed limits are by degrees narrowed, until the time fixed for rousing the game. The sport then becomes excellent; the deer run in small herds on every side, seemingly perceiving the danger into which they are driven; after which, they face about, and endeavour to brave the running fire of the musquetry, threatening them in the rear; but, obeying the impulses of fear, and failing in the attempt, they pass in closer herds through the fatal defile, where the King and Royal family, placed in ambuscade, wait their arrival. Their agility now becomes their last resource, and saves the greater number. Out of 3 or 4000, and sometimes more, which thus pass in review, about 100 fall. Some remain dead on the spot; others carry away with them the mortal wound, and fly, to conceal their agony, in the thickets. Their bodies, whilst yet in palpitation, are brought, and arranged upon the field of battle. These are numbered with a cruel satisfaction, for which a philosopher would reproach himself, but which it is agreed to pardon in hunters. The whole court, the Ambassadors, and foreign ministers, commonly take part in this amusement, which is repeated towards the end of every visit to the Escurial.

The glass manufacture is here carried to a degree of perfection, unknown in England. The largest mirrors are made in a brass frame, 162 inches long, 93 wide, and six deep, weighing near nine tons. These are designed wholly for the royal palaces, and for presents from the King. Yet, made for such purposes only, it proves a devouring monster in a country where provisions are dear, fuel scarce, and carriage exceedingly expensive. About 280 men are employed. The King is said to make no great profit by it; however, it is a very material point to be able to supply his subjects with a good commodity, and to keep in the country a large sum of money that formerly went out annually, to purchase it from strangers. To provide fuel for the fires they have put the pine-woods under proper regulations, and stated falls: 27 mule loads of fir-wood, are consumed every day; and four loads cost the King, including all the expences of cutting and bringing down from the mountains about 40 reals.

The palace of Aranjuez, is 27 miles from Madrid. The road to it is one of the finest in Europe. It crosses the famous bridge of Toledo, built by Philip II. and which, it has been said, only wanted a river. When the Manzanares is very low, which is most commonly the case, this little river is fordable, and the bridge avoided, which cuts off a quarter of a league in crossing the fine part of the environs of Madrid, called Las delicias, a walk consisting of two divergent allies, which terminate at the canal of Manzanares. On the other side begins the fine road to Aranjuez. After having travelled six leagues on a level road, surrounded with olive trees, we descend by a spiral declivity to the charming valley of Aranjuez.

On arriving in this valley, the dry and naked plains of Castille disappear, and are succeeded by a richer soil when we travel in the shade, surrounded by cascades, and the murmurs of rivulets. The meadows are enamelled with flowers, and the pastures display the most lively and variegated colours. Vegetation appears in all its richness, and proclaims a neighbouring river, which, with its beneficent waters, fertilizes and vivifies the landscape. The Tagus, entering the valley at the East end, runs and meanders for two leagues; and, after having reflected the images of the most beautiful plantations, joins the Xamara.

The learned find, in this junction, the etymology of the name of Aranjuez. They tell us, the ancients erected temples at the confluence of rivers, that there was one in honour of Jupiter at that of the Tagus and Xarama; and, that thence is derived the name of Aram Jovis, 'altar of Jupiter,' whence by corruption Aranjuez. Ancient however as may be the name, the embellishments are modern.

The first Spanish monarch who resided there for any considerable length of time, was Charles V. He began to build the palace his successors have inhabited, and to which Ferdinand VI. and Charles III. have each added a wing. In this new form it is still less a royal mansion, than a very agreeable country house, most delightfully situated, where art has done nothing more than make an advantageous use of the advances of nature. The Tagus, which runs in a right line to the Eastern front, glides by the pasture, and forms, almost under the windows, an artificial cascade.

A small arm of the river escapes from the cascade, and so closely washes the walls of the palace, that, from his terrace, the monarch may take the diversion of fishing. This arm afterwards rejoins the river, and thus forms a pleasant island; which is a vast garden of an irregular form, where shade, and fresh air, and the warbling of birds, are constantly found.

Art seems to have left to nature the care of embellishing Aranjuez. The palaces, and other edifices, are of a pleasing form, but without magnificence. The furniture of the apartments is less rich than elegant. The paintings are not numerous; there are only some portraits of the princes of the houses of Bourbon and Braganza; and a few Neapolitan paintings, in which nature seems imitated with more truth than elegance.

It would require too much time to conduct the reader through all the fine plantations of Aranjuez; from the village of which, runs a covered portico, continued to the buildings adjoining to the palace.

Near Aranjuez are stables of breeding mares, belonging to the King of Spain, in which the breed of Spanish horses is still preserved in all its ancient beauty. The building, has for inscription, vento gravidas ex prole putaris; i. e. From their swiftness you would imagine them engendered by the winds. These animals more especially contribute to the embellishment of Aranjuez. They there peculiarly display all the beauty of their motions, and their speed.

Formerly the Calle de la reyna was the course where horses from Barbary displayed their swiftness. A new kind of amusement is now substituted there, called the Parejas, which I had the satisfaction of viewing, says Townsend, previous to my departure from Aranjuez. The Prince of Asturias, with his two brothers, attended by 45 of the first nobility, all in the ancient Spanish dress, and mounted on high-bred Andalusian horses, performed a variety of evolutions to the sound of trumpets, and French-horns, forming four squadrons, distinguished from each other by the colour of their dresses, which were red, blue, yellow, and green. They executed this figure-dance with great exactness, and made an elegant appearance. When the weather is fine, the Parejantes, for so the figurans of this equestrian country dance, are called, walk in their dresses in the gardens of the palace, and join the spectators. The subjects of Philip II. and Charles V. and those of Charles IV. seem then to be united; imagination approaches these two reigns, and compares with pleasure the age of splendour in Spain, with that of its regeneration.

The residence of Aranjuez favours all the innocent diversions of the country; walks are no where more varied; whether with a book in your hand, you wander in the shrubberies, or pass through the long allies on horseback, or in a carriage, you may securely indulge in meditation and reverie.

The corps diplomatique seem to enjoy themselves more in this retreat, than at the other sitios; they live near together, give good dinners; have frequent balls; and, from day to day, they have one continued round of pleasant amusement.

In this sequestered spot we meet with none but men of the most polished manners, well informed of every thing that is passing in the world; and with the most accomplished women, all chearful, gay and lively. "The refinements of a select society like this (says Townsend) were so powerfully attractive, that I laid by my pen, I closed my books, and, from morning to night, had agreeable engagements."

The motions of the court are mostly uniform from day to day. Whilst at Aranjuez the king commonly amuses himself with fishing till noon, when he returns to dine, like every other branch of the royal family, in public. After dinner follows a short conversation with the foreign ministers, which being finished they retire to the garden, and he, accompanied by the prince, leaving the palace between three and four in the afternoon, goes 20 or 30 miles to shoot, following his sport as long as he can see.

The old fashioned courtiers, dine at half after one, immediately on returning from the palace; but the more modern at two o'clock, and the foreign ministers between that and three.

In the evening after the siesta, the princesses attended by their guards, the grandees, and some of the foreign ministers, enter their coaches, and move slowly on, saluting each other as often as they pass.

By the side of the long extended mall, the calle de la reyna, between Madrid and Aranguez, is a fine avenue, well filled with company, in which the princesses occasionally walk. If they are on foot, the whole company follows in their train: when passing in their carriages, all stand still to make their bow; and the cloak which was flung loosely back, or held up, or tucked under the arm, and the flap which was cast negligently over the left shoulder, is let fall, and hangs like the undertakers cloak, when walking at a funeral. It is pleasing to see the genteel young Spaniard in his capa, which he throws into a thousand graceful forms, each remarkable for its peculiar ease and elegance, such as no foreigner can imitate; but when he meets a person of superior rank, or when he goes into a church, ease and elegance are banished by decorum, and this capa, so much to be admired, degenerates into the stiffness and formality of a cloak.

The Spanish ladies discover the same taste in wearing the mantilla, a kind of muslin shawl, covering the head and shoulders, and serving the various purposes of the hood, the cloak, and the veil. No foreigner can ever attain their ease or elegance in this simple dress. In the Spanish women, the mantilla appears to have no weight. Lighter than air, it seems to supply the place of wings.

One evening, says Townsend, when this public walk was thronged with ladies, many of whom were richly dressed; on the tinkling of a little bell, at a distance scarce to be heard, in one moment all were upon their knees. Upon asking a lady what was the matter, she told me his Majesty was passing. Had I enquired of a Frenchman, he would have said, 'c'est le bon dieu qui passe.' Her looks pointed me to the spot, where two ladies of high fashion had quitted their carriage to the host, which the priests were carrying to some dying christian. Had it been the rainy season, they must have done the same; and had the public walk been even wet and dirty, none would have been excused from kneeling.

At a ball at this place, says the above writer, I had the happiness to see Madame Mello, dance a volero. Her motions were so graceful, that whilst she was dancing she appeared to be the most beautiful woman in the room: but she had no sooner retired to her seat than the delusion vanished.

This dance bears some resemblance to the fandango, at least in sprightliness and elegance; but then it is more correct than that favourite, yet a most lascivious, pantomime. The fandango itself is banished from genteel assemblies, and justly so. As danced by the vulgar it is most disgusting; as refined in higher life, covered with a most elegant yet transparent veil, it ceases to disgust; and from that very circumstance excites those passions in the youthful breast, which wisdom finds it difficult to curb. This dance must certainly come to them by tradition from the Moors. The music of it has such a powerful effect on young and old, that all are prepared for motion the instant that the instruments are heard. "And from what I have seen (says Townsend) I could almost persuade myself that, were it suddenly introduced into a church, or a court of judicature, priests and people, judges and criminals, the gravest and the gay, would forget all distinctions, and begin to dance.

CHAP. XI. Of Toledo, and its Environs.

THE origin of Toledo is uncertain. According to Sylva, in his Enquiry concerning the Manner in which Spain was Peopled, some Jews established themselves in the place where Toledo now stands, 540 years before Christ, and called the city they founded, Toledath, which, in their language, signifies Mother of the People. This origin is equally noble and doubtful. Two hundred and twenty-three years before the Christian aera, Hannibal added Toledo, with Castille, to the empire of Carthage. From thence it passed under the dominion of the Romans; and, in 467, Eurico, the seventh sovereign of the Goths, took possession of this city. In that line the sceptre continued more than 240 years, when the Moors entered Spain, and in three years overran the whole kingdom, and Toledo submitted to its fate A. D. 714. From this time to the final expulsion of the Moors, in 1085, Toledo was the object for which most blood was shed. Alphonso VI. who rescued this city, stiled himself Emperor of Toledo, whence it took, and has preserved the title of royal and imperial.

This famous city, once the seat of empire, where the arts and sciences—where trade and manufactures flourished—is now brought to ruin and decay, and is kept in existence only by the church. This city, which contained 200,000 souls, is now reduced to less than 25,000. The citizens are fled, the monks remain.

The situation of Toledo is remarkable. The Tagus, passing between two granite mountains' and almost surrounding one of these, forms a peninsula, on which the city stands, appearing at a distance like a cone.

Toledo is 12 leagues from Madrid. Solitary streets, houses in ruins, and the almost total absence of industry and affluence, but ill agree with the idea formed of a city, first in rank of the cortes of the kingdom of Castille, which, for a long series of years passed for its capital, and of which all the monuments prove its ancient splendour. Madrid, which, in the latter centuries, increased its population at the expence of the neighbouring cities, laid Toledo, in particular, under heavy contributions. The aspect of the ruins and barrenness of the environs, concur in giving it an appearance of wretchedness in some respects, however contradicted, when we enter their houses, which are clean and neat in the extreme — a pleasing sight, and seldom to be seen where poverty resides. The inhabitants of Toledo are not in this respect, much inferior to the Dutch; and the pains the latter take about their walls, their windows, and their furniture, are employed by the former in defending their habitations from the sun, and procuring coolness even in the dog-days. "In visiting several of these little mansions (says Bourgoanne) I thought myself transported into the palace of sleep: Nothing disturbed the calm of their peaceful inhabitants. At three in the afternoon, the windows and lattices shut, the floors moistened by frequent sprinklings, and large sheets spread over their courts, all concurred to make us forget the heat of the climate, and the hour of the day.

The industry of the inhabitants was not long since confined to these effeminate inventions. Within a few years they have shaken off that stupor to which they seemed condemned. Their prelate declared open war against indolence and wretchedness. His immense alms, above £2000 sterling annually, were unequal to the beneficence of his intentions. He therefore fitted up the Alcazar, a palace which had been the residence of the Gothic kings, and afterwards that of Charles V. and converted it into an hospicio, or general workhouse for the poor. This palace had been suffered to decay, till some lovers of the arts, mourning over the ruins of this once stately pile, made representations to the king, and urged him to repair it. This, at the expence of £50,000 was undertaken by the archbishop, and restored to its pristine grandeur. All the magnificent apartments are now occupied with spinning-wheels and looms; and, instead of princes are filled with beggars. In these they work, and in the under-ground story which had been the stables, they have their dormitory.

This palace was almost rebuilt by Charles V. it is situated on a steep hill, and commands a very fine prospect; it has 11 windows in front, and is three stories high; the inner court is very grand; its colonnade of granite columns, of the Corinthian order, makes a noble appearance; the grand staircase is of very fine architecture; the chapel is lofty and narrow, which renders it very convenient to attend divine service, there being a balcony in each story of the house leading into it. The stables, which are under-ground, are capable of containing 5000 horses. The attic story is one open gallery for playing in, above 240 in length. In the middle stories are several large halls; one of them has a very remarkable echo, to be equalled by none, except that of the Simonetti palace near Milan.

The good archbishop here feeds 700 persons employed in the silk manufactory; but unfortunately, with the best intentions, he has completed the ruin of the city; for, by his weight of capital, he has raised the price of labour, and of the raw materials; whilst by carrying a greater quantity of goods to the common market, he has sunk the price of the commodity so much, that the manufacturers, who employed from 40 to 60 workmen, now employ only two or three, and many who were in affluence, are now reduced to penury.

These people are so far from earning their own maintenance, that over and above the produce of their labour, they require 40,000 ducats a year for their support. If we reckon the ducat at 2s. 3d. ½, we shall find the sum amounts to £6 10 and a fraction, for each pauper, which alone, without the assistance of their work, should suffice for two of them. Of these 40,000 ducats, the archbishop gives 20,000 to the church, and the church supplies the rest.

From the universal experience of mankind, says Townsend, I may venture to assert, that if the most able silk manufacturer in Europe, who, in the way of his profession, has acquired wealth, were to feed, to clothe, and to employ 700 people upon the same terms, either with these in the Alcazar, or with those who belong to similar establishments in England, France, or Spain, he would soon be reduced to poverty. For health, for comfort, for profit, for population, let every family occupy a separate cottage, and learn to live on the produce of its industry. From not having a right understanding on this subject, benevolence in England, France, and Spain, must sigh and say, 'When I would do good, evil is present with me.' Such establishments increase the evils they mean to remedy, and aggravate the distress they were intended to relieve.

The cathedral is one of the most noble sacred edifices in Europe. Its foundation is dated as far back as the end of the sixth century. During 400 years, it was in possession of the Moors, and profaned by the Mahometan worship. The building itself, the carving, the pictures, and the treasures it contains, all attract and rivet the attention. This magnificent church is 404 feet long, and 203 feet wide; it contains five aisles, and the highest of these is 160 feet. The choir is covered with carvings, representing the conquest of Granada, executed in a most superior stile. The eye is never weary of examining these monuments of consummate skill. Among the pictures are the works of the best masters. In the library they have near 700 manuscripts.

The treasures of this cathedral, says Townsend, struck me with astonishment. La Custodia, an elegant silver model of the cathedral, weighs 22,000 ounces, and took 55 ounces of pure gold for gilding. It contains a multitude of pillars, and more than 200 little images of exquisite workmanship. In the centre of this edifice, is placed a shrine of massive gold, weighing 50 pounds; another occasionally supplying the place of this, contains a statue of the infant of Jesus, made of pure gold, and adorned with 800 precious stones. In four separate closets, are four large silver images, standing on globes of silver, each two feet diameter, representing Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, with their several emblems. The grand silver throne, on which is placed the Virgin, wearing a crown, and adorned with a profusion of the most costly gems, weighs 50 arrobas, which at 25 pounds the arroba, is equal to 1250 pounds. In the chapel of the Virgin, is an altar, covered with gold and silver.

It is evident, that this profusion of wealth, has arisen from the pious donations of the Spanish princes, out of the immense treasures obtained from their gold and silver mines, on the first discovery of America. The value of these donations may be ascertained with ease; but no pen can estimate, no figures calculate, no imagination conceive, what would have been their value, if, instead of being thus buried, and as far as relates to any useful purpose, lost; it had been employed in making easy communications through the kingdom, by roads and canals, or in the improvement of the soil by draining, by planting, and by watering, or in the establishment, by premiums and by loans, of useful manufactures, suited to the genius of the people, and to the nature of the country. If that overflowing wealth had been diverted into profitable channels, what might Spain have been! Dicite pontifices, in sancto quid facit aurum! 'What has gold to do in the sanctuary?' We may venture to say, that if the gold and silver of America, instead of being buried in the churches, or, which is worse, instead of pampering the pride, the prodigality, and the unprofitable luxury of the great; or, which is worst of all, instead of being idly squandered in useless, and almost endless wars, if all this gold and silver had been devoted to Ceres, Spain would have been her most favourite residence, and the whole peninsula one continued garden.

The revenues of the cathedral, is, perhaps, not to be equalled by any church in Europe. The archbishop has 9,000,000 of reals a year, which makes about £90,000 sterling; a revenue fit for a sovereign prince. Besides the archbishop, there are 40 canons, 50 prebendiaries, and 50 chaplains. The whole body of ecclesiastics belonging to this cathedral, are 600, all well provided for. The pope and the king of Spain, are always canons of this cathedral.

There is an asylum open at Toledo to suffering humanity, viz. an hospital for the insane. There are two principal ones in Spain; one at Saragossa, and the other at Toledo, I went several times to the latter, says Bourgoanne, and was always surprised at the cleanliness and regularity, which I constantly found there.

The sight of such a place, has always something in it afflicting to humanity, even when viewed with the curious eye of philosophy; but I confess I never felt the sentiment of those who say they are humbled at the sight of this degradation of human reason. We never feel humiliation, except we can make comparisons to our own disadvantage. What class in the creation is better treated than the human species? If any other be so, is our situation in life such, as to make us blush before it? Shame supposes a reciprocal consciousness, between the being that feels, and that by which it is caused. We know not angels; beasts are unacquainted with us, and insanity being an involuntary defect, from which no one is secure, in what manner can any individual of the human species feel humiliation at the sight of a madman; he himself would not feel it, were he capable of reasoning. The drunkard and passionate are those that ought to blush; they rebel against the reason which would restrain them. The madman, no longer under its empire, is slave of a power which has subjugated him without his consent. He is not to be pitied, unless when lucid intervals give him knowledge of his situation. Except in these cases, a wretch racked with the gout, seems to have greater claim to compassion. With these preliminary observations, the asylums of humanity despoiled of its most exalted endowment, may be entered with greater composure. There was but one man raving mad in the hospital of Toledo; he was a priest, who, from the wretched bed to which he was chained, uttered uninterrupted execrations against the principal personages of the kingdom of Spain. I beheld in him, says Bourgoanne, only a ferocious beast in a human form, whose roarings were articulated by words. Without blaming or pitying him, I fled from his approach. His companions were much less frightful. I particularly remarked a Franciscan monk, who had preserved his habit, and had wrapped up his head in a wig, made of paper; his only mania was that of mounting on a stone, and thence, as from a pulpit, delivering scraps of sermons, which he mingled with facetious jokes, and ended with making capers. In 1783, I passed a quarter of an hour among his audience; two years afterwards, I again appeared before him, and was not a little astonished at his re¦collecting me. I admired this inexplicable singularity of nature, which in so severely treating his intellectual faculties, had still preserved to him a happy memory. Is not this another problem for metaphysics to resolve?

Near this city, is to be seen part of an aqueduct erected to convey on a level with the Alcazar, the water from a spring seven or eight leagues from Toledo. This is one of those works, equally useful and magnificent, by which the Romans have marked their residence in several places in Spain; nor is this the only Roman monument of which the remains are found in the environs of Toledo. Near a convent of the Minimes, are the ruins of a circus; and not far from thence, may be discerned the traces of an old Roman road.

Thus the Romans, the Arabians, the Goths, and the Spaniards of the time of Charles V. by turns embellished and improved Toledo. We cannot say so much for the present race. Houses out of repair, fine edifices going to ruin, few or no manufactures, a population considerably reduced, and the most barren environs are all that now offer themselves to the sight of the travellers, drawn thither by the reputation of that famous city. Under the late reign, some successful efforts were made, to recover it from the universal decay into which it is fallen. We have seen that the archbishop has rebuilt part of the Alcazar, and established there some manufactures of silk. The blades of Toledo were formerly famous for their temper and solidity. Charles III. erected a very spacious edifice for making them; and the experiments already made, seem to promise that the modern citizens of Toledo, will not, in this respect, be long inferior to their predecessors.

Twiss says, that all the sword, hanger, and dagger-blades for the Spanish army, are made in this city, but that they are far from being so well tempered, as in former times; a true old Toledo sword-blade, sells even in Spain for six or seven guineas, and can be purchased only by chance. There are daggers that have been made here, which will strike through a crown-piece. The steel is still excellent, says Townsend, and so perfectly tempered, that at thrusting at a target, the swords will bend like whalebone, and yet cut through a helmet, without turning their edge.

Peyron adds, that the secret of hardening them, has again been recovered, and that experiments have been made with blades lately fabricated here, which seem to justify this assertion. When one of these has undergone the operation of tempering, if it is in the least notched by striking with it several blows on an iron head-piece, it is rejected. All sword-blades made for the soldiers, have the king's name engraven on one side, and some device on the other, such as, 'No me saques sin ragon, na me embaines sin honor.' 'Draw me not without reason, sheath me not without honour.'

Virgil says, 'At Chalybes nudi ferrum, &c.'

'And naked Spaniards temper steel for war.

It is likewise remarked by Diodorus Siculas, that the Celtiberians gave such temper to their steel, that no helmet could resist their stroke.

The inhabitants of this city would scarce pardon us, were we to pass over in silence their Cigarrales: These are little country houses, resembling those in the environs of Marseilles, except that they are less ornamented, and not so numerous. Upon the banks of the Saone, the Loire, or the Thames, these Cigarrales would dishonour the country. In the barren part of Castille, they are delightful retreats, offering in the heat of the dog-days, coolness and repose, amidst the shade of orchards. But it is impossible to arrive at them, except by crossing parched and unshaded meadows, or climing steep and rugged precipices. They are, however, the garden of Eden, to the inhabitants of Toledo.

CHAP. XII. Of the Province of Old Castille.

THE name of Old Castille was given to this province, as being recovered from the Moors, sooner than New Castille. On the south it is bounded by New Castille; on the west by Leon; on the north by Asturia and Biscay; and on the east by Navarre and Arragon. Its figure is irregular, and consequently its dimensions very different. Its greatest length from Valladolid to Tarracona, is about 112 English miles, and its greatest breadth about 180. The principal rivers are the Duoro and the Ebro. The sources of all the rivers are in this province, which is mountainous, and not near so fertile as New Castille. The most fruitful part, is a tract lying north near Medina. The wine produced here is excellent; and its plains are covered with cattle, particularly sheep, the wool of which is the best in all Spain. It was formerly only a country, subject to the kings of Leon; but in 1016, was erected into a kingdom. The most remarkable cities, which claim the attention of travellers, are Burgos its ancient capital, Valladolid, and Segovia: of these we shall treat in their turn.

Burgos, the capital of Old Castille, is very agreeably situated; the greatest part of it, is on the right of the Arlaneon, over which there are three bridges. This river describes the arch of a circle round Burgos, and on the other side is a hill, upon which there still remains some ruins of an old fort. The Arlaneon embellishes and fertilises all the environs; it renders flourishing the plantations, which serve as public walks, waters the verdant meadows, and washes the walls of two remarkable edifices, situated below the city: the first is a convent of nuns, the abbess of which has considerable privileges; and is the best endowed in Spain. The other is the royal hospital, remarkable for the extreme cleanliness preserved in it, and the healthiness of its situation. The most polished nations might take example from the Spaniards, with respect to their charitable foundations.

There is nothing remarkable in Burgos, except its cathedral, one of the most magnificent and best preserved of the ancient gothic edifices, now existing in Europe. Its form is exactly the same as that of York Minster, which may be said to be the criterion, according to which the beauties and defects of every Gothic church are to be estimated. We are struck (says Swinburne) with the resemblance between these two buildings; both were embellished with a profusion of statues; most of those at York were destroyed in the first emotions of Iconoclastic zeal; those of Burgos are still in full possession of the homages of the country, and consequently entire. The foliage-work, arches, pillar, and battlements, are executed in the most elaborate and finished manner, of that stile which has usually been called Gothic. Of late this appellation has been exploded, and that of Arabic substituted for it.

I confess (says Swinburne) I see some reason to doubt of the propriety of this second epithet. The churches of our ancestors shoot up into spires, towers, pinnacles, sillagree-work, and no such thing as a cupola seems ever to have been attempted; the mosques and other buildings of the Arabians, are rounded into domes, and coved roofs, with now and then a slender square minaret, terminating in a ball or pine-apple; the Arabic walls shine with painted tiles, mosaics, and stucco, none of which ever appear in our ancient edifices.

From all these differential marks, there is reason to suspect, that our old structures have been new named, and Mahometanised, without sufficient proof of their Arabic origin. At the same time it must be acknowledged that it is difficult to find them a more satisfactory and genuine pedigree.

The best age of that stile of construction began in England, in the reign of Henry III. for till then we built in the clumsy manner called Saxon, destitute of every recommendation but solidity; the new taste came, in all probability, from France, introduced by some Provencals that followed the Queen. If we suppose it imported into that kingdom by those that returned from the crusades, we must of course set it down as an Eastern invention. The question is what part of the East it came from, and whether it was the same as that employed by the Arabians. If there were clear proofs of its being a branch of the Arabic architecture, it would still appear extraordinary, that its very first introduction into Christendom should be attended with so great a variation from the models it was meant to imitate; and that any prince, or learned priest, that thought it worthy of being employed in his country, should set about new fashioning it in all its points.

Some persons have suspected it to have been the manner practised by the Eastern Christians, and not adopted by the Arabs; who might disdain to have any thing similar in their places of worship with those of a conquered people. Others have been of opinion that it comes originally from Persia, or further East; and some again maintain it to be an European invention, or at least a barbarous mode of building, brought by some great genius to the elegant proportion we behold in our cathedrals.

The civdad of Valladolid, anciently called Pindia, is a large, beautiful, and populous city, situated in a spacious and delightful plain, watered by the Pisuerga. It is one of the most stately cities in Spain, having long, broad, fine streets, with large and lofty houses, splendid palaces, spacious and elegant squares, piazzas, and fountains, 70 convents, six hospitals for the sick, for infants, and for lunatics, and 20,000 inhabitants.

The university has more than 2,000 students. In the year 1346, this seminary was instituted, and, A. D. 1784 to 1785, there entered, and were matriculated 2000 students.

The king's palace, rather elegant than grand, is still preserved; but all the palaces of the great nobility are going to decay.

In the royal palace Philips II. and III. were born; and here Charles V. received the news that his victorious troops had taken Rome, and made the Pope his prisoner; and from hence he ordered prayers to be offered up in all the churches of Spain, for the deliverance of the Sovereign Pontiff. In this city, his successors, likewise, kept their court, till Philip IV. removed it to Madrid.

As we have mentioned Charles V. we shall add a short quotation from the Abbé de la Porte — he says, on visiting the monastery of St Just, at no great distance, he was shewn by one of the monks the place where that Emperor had lodged, "There, (said he sneeringly) is the melancholy solitude where that monarch, become imbecile and devout, passed his days in winding up clocks, in teazing the Friars, in giving himself the discipline, in daubing the walls of his cell with scraps on predestination and grace, in stunning himself with reflecting on the abandonment of his crown, and in repenting. There he performed the farce of his own burial, put himself in a coffin, sung for himself the de profundis, and shewed all the follies of a distempered brain."

The large field, called El Campo Grande, is within the walls, and round it are 15 churches. On this spot many thousands of heretics have been burnt alive by order of the Inquisition; but none of these execrable executions have taken place for many years.

All the public walks are ornamented with trees, some of which are delightfully situated on the banks of the Pisguera. The country round this city is a perfect garden, watered by the Norias. It produces white wine of a good quality, excellent madder, some silk, and a few olives.

Valladolid is not wholly without manufactures; some stuffs and coarse cloths are made there, from the wool of the sheep kept in the neighbourhood. There are also gold and silversmiths; and one street is entirely inhabited by jewellers.

This city, though fallen from its ancient splendor, on the finishing of the projected canal may recover it again.

This canal begins at Segovia; 16 leagues north of Madrid; from Segovia, quitting the Eresma, it crosses the Pisuerga, near Valladolid, and proceeds to Reinosa. At Reinosa is the communication with the canal of Arragon, which unites the Mediterranean to the Bay of Biscay.

They have already completed 20 leagues of it, which has cost near £400,000 which is about £4,318 per mile. It is nine feet deep, 20 feet wide at bottom, and 56 at top; and, when perfected, which may be in less than 20 years, the world will, perhaps, have nothing of the kind to be compared with it, either in point of workmanship, extent, or utility.

Segovia is a city of great antiquity, and still considerable. It stands high between two hills, being large, populous, and handsome, having excellent manufactures of cloth and paper; and exporting also a very fine sort of wool. In Segovia, the first object to attract the eye is the aqueduct, a most amazing fabric of antiquity, carried from one mountain to another, to the length of 3000 paces, and supported by two rows of 76 lofty arches: it passes through the suburbs, and conveys water to the whole city.

Antiquaries have not agreed upon the time of its erection. The Romans were certainly the builders of it, but no inscription remains sufficiently legible to lead to the knowledge of the precise period of their empire, in which it was constructed. It is likely to remain in its present state as long as Segovia exists; for the situation of that city, on a dry rock, renders this supply indispensibly necessary.

The principal buildings in this city are the cathedral and the Alcazar.

The cathedral is one of the handsomest churches in Spain, in the latest Gothic manner. The inside is majestic, and remarkably clear of the embarassments of altars and chapels, so common throughout the kingdom.

The Alcazar, or palace, formerly the residence of the Gothic kings, stands in one of the finest positions possible, on a rock, rising above the open country; a very pretty river washes the foot of the precipice, and the city lies admirably well on the brow of the hill; the declivity is woody, and the banks charmingly rural; the snowy mountains, and dark forests of St. Ildefonso compose an awful back-ground to the picture. Towards the town there is a large court before the great tower, which, having been the prison of Gil Blas, is so well described by Le Sage, that the subject requires no farther explanation. The rest of the buildings form an antique palace, which has seldom been inhabited by any but prisoners, since the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, who were much attached to this situation. There are some magnificent halls in it, with much gilding in the ceilings, in a semi-barbarous taste. All the kings of Spain are seated in state along the cornice of the great saloon. The royal apartments are now occupied by a college of young gentlemen cadets, educated at the king's expence, in all the sciences requisite for forming an engineer. The grand master of the ordnance resides at Segovia, which is the head establishment of the Spanish artillery.

Another court of the palace is allotted as a prison to Algerine captains of ships. Their crews work in the arsenal of Carthagena. Most of their time is spent in conversation, walking up and down a long gallery, smoaking, and playing at chess, except when they go down, at stated hours, to fetch water for their own use. Confinement apart, their lives pass in case and tranquillity.

The mint is situated at the bottom of the city, upon the small river Eresma. The whole machinery for coining is moved by water-wheels, by means of which the metal is weighed, cut, beaten, stamped, and milled, as it were, in a moment. This is the most ancient of the three mints in Spain; the other two are at Seville and Madrid.

The head attire of the married women of this province has something very singular in its appearance; it consists of a black perriwig, faced all round with the wool of a black lamb, ending behind in two long plaited tresses, that reach down to their rumps. Previous to their nuptials, they are obliged to make up this elegant kind of helmet, which renders their natural ugliness still more horrible. They wear large, clumsy shoes, almost as bad as the French sabot, a brown gown, thrown back and tied behind, a blue and white apron, and a large flowing white veil, fastened with blue ribbands. The montero caps of the men are all faced with red or blue.

"At one place where we stopped (says Swinburne) the only thing we remarked was a cow's tail, in which the hostess stuck combs; this was the first instance we had met with of a custom which prevailed in Sancho Panca's time, and was of such service in furnishing the barber with a false beard.

In some parts of this province the houses are built with pieces of clay, squared and baked in the sun. On every steeple in the villages there are two or three stork's nests; these birds seem to be held here in the same veneration as they are in the Low countries.

Numberless flocks of sheep cover the plains of Segovia, and produce that excellent wool which makes such an important branch of the commerce of Spain. The kings were anciently the proprietors of the greatest parts of these flocks; they have been successively alienated for state exigengencies. Philip I. was obliged to sell the last 14,000 sheep which belonged to the crown, to defray the expences of war. They are however still the object of the government's particular attention: in effect, there is a considerable exportation, which is used all over Europe.

The sheep-shearing, performed in the month of May, is an object of considerable magnitude in Spain, because it is done in great buildings, contrived so as to receive flocks of 40, 50, and sometimes 60,000 sheep. The harvest and vintage in corn and wine countries are not seasons of greater festivity. It is a time of rejoicing both to the owner and to the workmen. The latter are divided into classes, each of which has its distinct employment. A hundred and twenty-five workmen are necessary to every 10,000 sheep. Each sheep produces four sorts of wool, more or less fine, according to the part from which it is taken.

CHAP. XIII. Of Leon, &c.

WE shall now proceed to speak of the remaining provinces, on the northern part of this kingdom; these are, Leon, Biscay, Navarre, Asturia, and Gallicia, the last four lie on the sea-coast, which forms part of the Bay of Biscay. The principal sea-port in this bay is Bilboa. In the province or kingdom of Leon, is the city of Salamanca, famous for its university. Besides these two towns, there are few others of any celebrity. Before, however, we speak of these cities, we shall, as we have already done, give some general view of each province, classing whatever may be interesting under its respective territory.

The kingdom of Leon is bounded on the north by Asturias, on the west by Gallicia and Portugal, on the south by Estramadura, and on the East by Old Castille. Its extent, from north to south, is near 200 miles, and from east to west about 100. The soil produces all the necessaries of life, particularly the districts of Vierzo and Ledesma. The wine likewise is tolerably good; and in this province are mines of turquois. "All the way from Leon, the ancient capital of this province, to Salamanca, (says Townsend) the country is so flat and open, that the Moorish horse, when they invaded Spain, must have met with nothing to impede their progress; because in such extensive plains, an oppressed people, dispirited and disarmed, could have little inclination to make resistance; and, had it not been for a more hardy race, inhabiting the mountains of the north, the whole peninsula might at this moment have been numbered among the followers of Mahomet. The principal river is the Douro, dividing the province into two nearly equal parts, and after passing through Portugal, discharges itself into the sea.

Leon, the capital of the province, was built by the Romans, in the time of the Emperor Galba, and called Legio Septima Germanica, from whence the name Leon is derived. It lies at the end of a large plain, bounded by the mountains of the Asturias. The cathedral is famous, not only for its beauty, but for having been the burial-place of several Saints, 37 Kings of Spain, and one Emperor. The city was formerly much larger, richer, and more populous, than at present. It was the first city of any consequence, that was retaken from the Moors, and the seat of the first Christian King of Spain.

All the churches of this city, like those of Arragon, are crowded with pillars, which are nearly hid with preposterous ornaments, such as vines, cherubs, angels, and birds, covered entirely with gold.

This city, destitute of commerce, is supported by the church. Beggars are to be seen in every street, who are fed by the convents and at the bishop's palace. Here they get their breakfast, and here they dine. Besides food they receive, every day at one, of the convents, the men a farthing, and the women and children half as much. On this provision they live, marry, and perpetuate a miserable race. An hospicio, or general workhouse, is nearly finished to receive them; but, if alms continue to be thus distributed, the same number of wretches will in time occupy the place of those who shall be sent into confinement.

The surrounding country is bold and beautiful, but ill cultivated. This city is watered by two little streams, which unite below the city. These, in summer, might be called brooks, in winter they are torrents.

With the rolling stones hurried down from the mountains, by the impetuous raging of these torrents, on the melting of the snow, a great part of the wall is built; which forms a valuable collection for the naturalist, who wishes without labour, to investigate the nature of the country. Among these are found limestone, schist, and grit. All these prove, by their extraneous fossils, that the hills from whence they come, were in a state of dissolution, and covered by the sea.

Salamanca, termed by the Spaniards, the mother of virtues, sciences, and arts, is situated on little hills, and in a plain, watered by the river Tormes. It lies 35 leagues north-west of Madrid. It is an extensive, rich, and populous city, abounding in all the necessaries of life.

The most beautiful part of this city is the great square, built about 30 years ago. The houses are of three stories, and all of equal height and exact symmetry, with iron balconies, and a stone ballustrade at the top of them; the lower part is arched, which forms a piazza all round the square, of 293 feet to each side. Over some of the arches are medallions, with bad busts of the Kings of Spain, and of several eminent men, in stone bas-reliefs, among which are those of Fernando Cortes, Francis Pizarro, Davila, and Cid Ruy.

The piazza is not more to be admired for its beauty in the day, than for the protection it affords by night; because, in this city, they have an execrable custom, both offensive to the nostrils, and destructive to the cloaths, similar to that for which the inhabitants of the Old Town, in Edinburgh, have been deservedly reproached.

The river Tormes has a bridge of 25 arches over it, in this city, built by the Romans, and yet entire. There are also the remains of an old Roman causeway, leading from this city to Lerida, and from thence to Seville; there is an inscription to be met with, denoting it to have been repaired by the Emperor Adrian.

Of all the public edifices, the cathedral is the most worthy of attention. The foundation of this ancient structure was laid A. D. 1513, but it was not finished till 1734. The whole is beautiful, but the most striking part of this church, and of many public buildings in this city, is the sculpture, which merits admiration, not only for the taste therein displayed, but for its excellent preservation.

The church of the Dominicans comes little short of the cathedral in point of sculpture. It has a representation of St. Stephen stoned, with a crucifix above it, all as large as life, and not apparently injured by the weather. Indeed, in both these edifices, the carvings are in some measure protected, not from a driving rain, but from its perpendicular descent, because they sink back as much as the thickness of the wall will permit, which is at least six feet; and are surrounded by mouldings, projecting considerably beyond the wall. The precaution without doubt was prudent; yet some of the ornaments, in bas-relief, preserve their sharpest angles, even when exposed to the full force of the destructive elements. This circumstance may be readily accounted for, when we consider that stone is a grit, which, when first taken from the quarry, is soft, but upon being exposed to the air acquires hardness. Hence it is peculiarly valuable, both to the architect and the sculptor; and to these properties we may attribute the beautiful monuments of art abounding in Salamanca.

It would be tedious to describe the convents and public seminaries of this once famous city; yet to pass them all in silence would be inexcusable: we shall briefly therefore mention such as merit attention.

Among these may certainly be reckoned the old college. Here the quadrangle is small, yet elegant; and the cloister, with its 24 columns, one of the prettiest in Salamanca: the apartments are commodious, and those of the regent are in a superior stile.

The college of the Archbishop is built upon a larger scale, more light and airy, and having four galleries, of 130 feet, with 32 columns, supported by as many, which form the cloister, it may be called magnificent.

Cuenca college is remarkable at present for its neatness and simplicity; but the portico, when finished, will place it among the most elegant buildings of this city.

The college of Oviedo, with the churches of the Augustines and the Carmelites, deserve attention.

Of all these colleges and convents it were endless to enumerate the treasures and rich jewels designed for the service of the altar. Whatever is most valuable, the product of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, is here collected; and the best workmen in every country have exerted all their taste and skill, each in his several branch, to shew the perfection of his art. The ornaments and dresses of the priests are both rich and beautiful; but the most costly piece of furniture, in most convents, is the custodia, that is the depository of the Host; or, according to the ideas of a Catholic, the throne of the Most High, when, upon solemn festivals, he appears to command the adoration of mankind. It is not uncommon to expend 6000 ounces of silver upon one of these, besides gold and precious stones; yet in most of them, the workmanship surpasses the value of the materials.

In the year 1030, there was not a single convent in Salamanca; and in 1480, previous to the discovery of America, they had only six for men, and three for women; but now there are 39. In 1518, they counted 11,000 virgins. At present, the persons under vows are happily reduced to 1519.

The houses are no more than 3000, yet they have 27 parish churches, with 15 chapels; and the clergy, including those belonging to the cathedral, and those of St. Mark, amount in the whole, to 580.

In a city where the convents and clergy are so numerous, it may be well expected, that beggars will abound; and agreeable to this idea it is seen, that by the ample provision here made for laziness, every street swarms with vagabonds; not merely with those who are proper objects of compassion, but with wretches, who, if compelled to work, would be found abundantly able to maintain themselves. There is, indeed, an hospicio, or general work-house, for their reception; but as the funds are limited, and do not amount to £1,600 a year, it can support only 450 paupers. Should, however, the government be inclined to increase these funds, it will make no great difference; because the numbers both in the work-house and the streets, will always bear proportion to the food distributed. This truth can scarcely be inculcated too often; but we shall defer our observations on it, till we come to treat of Cadiz.

Among the various implements in the hospicio, there is an admirable one for weaving tape, both cheap and simple in its construction, and so expeditious in its work, that a little child weaves near 50 yards, and a woman more than 120 in a day.

The university of Salamanca, was founded in the year 1200, by Alfonso IX. This seminary soon rose into importance, and became eminent in Europe by acquaintance with Arabian authors, and through them with the Greeks. Its professors translated Aricena, who took the lead in medicine; and Averroes, who had bestowed much time in studying Aristotle; but not satisfied with copying from the Arabs, they laboured much themselves, and became justly famous in their day for their knowledge in jurisprudence, and for the progress in all the sciences then cultivated in Europe.

The students were formerly reckoned about 16,000, but they are now much reduced; and in 1785, the number of matriculars was not quite 2000. In a curious edict of the Emperor Charles V. for the regulation of mendicity, we find a clause, permitting students to beg, provided they have a licence from the rector; but in the present day, they appear to be in a more reputable condition; and few, if any, take advantage of this privilege.

The library is spacious, and tolerably well furnished with modern books; yet the bulk is trash, consisting chiefly of scholastic divinity.

There is in this university an Irish college; threescore students are received in it at a time, and when they are sent back to Ireland, the same number from thence are admitted, to be like them, trained up for the ministry. Their course of education requires eight years. They are expected to come well founded in the languages; and of the time allotted to them in Spain, four years are given up to the study of philosophy, the remainder to divinity.

The mode of giving lectures, is, perhaps, peculiar to themselves, but worthy to be followed in our universities. The students have questions proposed for their discussion twice every day, and on these they are informed what books to read; then, supposing the subject to admit of a dispute, it is carried on by two of them, under the direction of a moderate, who gives assistance when it is wanted, and guides them to the truth. When this mode of proceeding is not admissible, the tutors, instead of giving formal lectures, employ themselves in the examination of their pupils, and the business of instruction is thus greatly expedited.

The students are dressed in black, like priests, and have their crowns shorn.

The lower class of people wear large hats uncocked, some black and some white, slit sleeves, broad leather belts, and sandals made of cords.

About two leagues from this city is a forest of ilex, stretching east and west near 40 leagues. The acorns here are of the kind described by Horace, as the origin of war among the rude inhabitants of an infant world. Not austere, like those of oak, or of the common ilex, but sweet and palatable, like the chesnut; they are food, not merely for the swine, but for the peasants, and yield considerable profits.

The accommodation for travellers through this province are very indifferent, perhaps some of the worst throughout Spain; in the villages they are execrable. Heavy and incessant rain, says Townsend, compelled us to have recourse for shelter to a miserable village, between Salamanca and Avila, called Malpartido.

The posada had only one bed for the use of the whole family; and as that was occupied by a lad, son to the good woman of the house, then dying of a putrid fever, we had a most uncomfortable prospect for the night. Besides the bed-chamber, they had as usual, a kitchen, a room of about ten feet square, with an elevated hearth in the centre of it, over which a little opening in the roof afforded a vent for the smoak. Around the hearth was a wide bench, which by day supplied the place of chairs, and by night served the purpose of a bed. Upon this they designed to scatter straw for me, leaving my guide to measure his length on the bare boards at the other end of this magnificent apartment. A pass, however, from Count Campomanes, fortunately procured me a lodging in the village. Having had the curiosity to measure the room of another posada in this province, which, like most of those in Spain, served the double purpose of bed-chamber and parlour, I found it to be twelve feet by ten; yet, in these contracted limits were contained, a bed, the tressels for another, a chair, with two large chests for the king's tobacco, for barley, linen, and all the treasures of the family. The kitchen was nearly of the same dimensions: yet in this posada were 35 horses, mules, and asses, with their riders and drivers, who all found lodging for the night.

No country can suffer more than Spain for want of a rich tenantry. Excepting a few provinces, the lands are commonly in administration; and hence extensive districts yield only a contemptible revenue to their lord; and districts that of about six square leagues, that once could boast of more than 100 towns, are now reduced to a tenth part of that number.

Avila is celebrated among the Catholics, as having been the birth-place of St. Teresa: in this city are two convents, one built upon the spot where she was born, the other is the one in which she took the veil.

The provinces Biscay and Navarre, are bounded to the west by the Asturias, to the north by the sea, which is here called the Bay of Biscay, and to the south by Old Castille. Its extent from north to south, is about 100 miles, and from east to west about 120. The air here is mild and temperate, as in the other provinces, but the soil uneven and stony. Biscay, which joins the Pyrenees, seems to be an extensive continuation of these mountains to the borders of Castille; notwithstanding its being very mountainous, few parts of Spain, or indeed of any part of Europe, are so well inhabited as this province, and Navarre. Houses and cottages may be discerned in great numbers on the highest mountains, and in many of the vallies, the villages and hamlets are within sight of each other. Many of the hills produce a light sort of wine, partaking of the qualities of champagne, and which, if transported to England, says Baretti, would be liked equally well. It is pleasing in many parts of Biscay, to see vineyards and corn fields hanging reciprocally over each other on the sloping sides of the mountains. For 30 leagues, the distance between the Bedassoa which divides the Frontiers from France, and Vittoria, not a quarter of an hour passes, but the traveller discovers some village or hamlet.

The tops of all these mountains, says Swinburne, are crowded with forests, or covered with pastures; the acclivities cultivated as far as their nature will allow, and the deep vallies thronged with villages, hamlets, iron-works, orchards, and gardens. The timber of the mountains, and the iron melted in the forges, employ a great number of hands, and give life and spirit to the whole province. The little towns are full of good houses, built by those whose industry and enterprizes have been rewarded with success. These manufactories and undertakings diffuse opulence among the middle class of men, and enable them to indulge the patriotic vanity of settling comfortably in their native hamlets.

Biscay is the country of the ancient Cantabri, so imperfectly subdued by Augustus, and so slightly annexed to the Roman empire. Their mountains have in all ages afforded them temptations and opportunities of withdrawing themselves from every yoke that has been attempted to be imposed upon them.

Besides corn and wine, the Biscayans raise a great deal of very fine flax. The sea-coast abounds so with oranges and lemons, that they are sold extremely cheap. Fruit is plentiful throughout the province, the upper parts of the mountains being well wooded; and every one being at liberty to go and cut down as much timber as he thinks proper; but that it may not become scarce, they have a custom once a year for all the inhabitants to go into the woods, from which they have cut down any timber, and then each man plants two young trees, which he brings from the nursery in his garden. When the trees are all planted, they dance jovially round a large cask of wine, which, after having emptied, they separate and return to their respective habitations. The person who instituted this custom, has certainly been a great benefactor to his country. The lostiest and wildest parts of the mountains abound with the best sort of Spanish chesnuts.

The sea yields plenty of all kinds of fish, and at Bilboa they have a kind called angullas, which are reckoned a most choice dainty. This fish is as white as milk, and so very small, that a person may put two or three dozen of them in his mouth at once. The Biscayans fry them in oil, and squeeze the juice of lemon over them, when they eat them, They are so plentiful, that the poorest people may purchase them. Boats are easily loaded with them by the fishermen, all along the river Orduna, below Bilboa, down to the sea, which is at the distance of four or five miles.

The principal rivers are the Bedassoa, and the Nervio, which falls into the sea two miles below Bilboa. The ancients called this latter river Chalybs, and its water is excellent for tempering steel. The greatest riches in this province, lie in the bosom of the earth, in the iron mines, from which are made large quantities of arms, particularly sword-blades, esteemed the best in Europe; a great deal of iron is likewise exported in bars. Here are also mines of lead, and other more valuable metals, with which, and the other productions of the country, they carry on a considerable trade with Holland, France, and England.

Bilboa, the capital of the province, lies in a plain, environed by high mountains. This city is pleasantly situated, enjoys a good air, stands in a fruitful country, is well built, and carries on a very considerable traffic in iron, wool, saffron, and chesnuts. It is said to contain about 20,000 inhabitants. The merchants here are reputed to be very rich. The tide comes close to the town, and the harbour is one of the best and most frequented on the northern coasts of Spain.

There are two other sea-ports in this province, S. Sebastian and Fontarabia, which merit the travellers attention; the former pleasantly situated at the foot of a mountain, on the Bay of Biscay, about four or five leagues to the west of the French frontiers. The harbour is large and safe, and the town fortified, but appears to be a place of less strength than the Spaniards imagined, having been taken from them after a month's siege by the French, in 1719. The streets are long and spacious, and the houses well built. Their trade is very flourishing, and consists chiefly in iron and steel, said to be the finest in Europe. There is also a great deal of fine wool exported from hence, the growth of Old Castille. Some Spanish men of war lie about a quarter of a league to the eastward of this place at Port-Passage.

Fontarabia is the last town in Spain, on the side of France. It is situated on a peninsula in the Bay if Biscay, near the mouth of the river Bidassoa, which separates the two kingdoms. It was formerly looked upon as impregnable by the Spaniards, but was taken by the French after a short siege, in the same year that S. Sebastian was taken. This is the only town honoured with the title of a city, and the see of a bishop in this division of the province, Biscay being divided into three divisions, and it is generally considered to be the key of Spain on that side of the kingdom.

Vittoria, or Victoria, the capital of another division of this province, is most delightfully situated in a fine valley, about 14 leagues south of Bilboa. What renders this town very attracting to the eye of a stranger, is the trees planted in all the principal streets. It is chiefly inhabited by merchants and persons of rank, who have been drawn hither by the beauty of the town, and its delightful situation. It is said to have been built by Sancho, King of Navarre, in memory of his victory over the Moors of Alava, from which circumstance it was named Victoria.

The three provinces of Biscay, are the asylum of liberty and industry, and this is the great cause of their common prosperity. In crossing Biscay, we perceive their presence has given animation to every object; nothing can be more delightful than the hills; nothing can be more chearful than the cultivated vallies. What a difference (says Bourgoanne) in the aspect of this country, and that of the neighbouring province! I am far from wishing to throw ridicule on the Castillians, whose virtues I esteem; but they are silent and melancholy, they bear in their austere and sallow visages, the marks of lassitude and poverty. The Biscayans have a different complexion, and quite another air of countenance and character. Free, lively, and hospitable; they seem to enjoy their happiness, and wish to communicate it to those who come among them.

These Biscayans, who are so different in their language and appearance from the Castillians, are not less so in the constitution of their country. Their province is considered, in many respects, as beyond the Spanish frontiers. Except a few restrictions, all merchandize enters, and is never examined, but at the interior limits. The province has other privileges, of which the people are very jealous, but so precarious a possession is liberty, that these have recently been more than once attacked. The most moderate government, suffers with regret, the shackles with which liberty confines its authority. If the king be in want of a certain number of soldiers or sailors, he notifies his wishes to the province, and the people find the most easy means of furnishing their contingency. The taxes which they pay, have the name and form of free gifts. The monarch, by his minister of finances, requires a certain sum; the demand is discussed by the states, and, as it may be imagined, is always acquiesced in. They then levy the sum upon the different cities and communities. There is one advantage derived from this mode of levying; the impost being paid from the city grants, individuals are not exposed to seizure or constraint. It therefore seems in the first point of view, that Biscay taxes itself; and for want of the reality, the inhabitants cherish the shadow; to which, for some years past, they have made real sacrifices. The free commerce of Spanish America, might be extended to their ports, if the Biscayans would allow the necessary duties to be there paid; but they look upon custom-house officers as the creatures of despotism, and their jealousy rejects the proffered benefits of their sovereign. They can therefore make no commercial expedition to America, without preparing for it in a neighbouring port, and the most industrious people of Spain, the most experienced in navigation, and the best situated for such a commerce, sacrifice a part of these advantages to that of preserving some small remains of liberty. Thus before the war, which gave independence to British America, all the inhabitants of one of the provinces engaged themselves, by an oath, not to eat lamb, in order to increase the growth of wool, with the intention of rendering useless the manufactures of the mother country.

Biscay is remarkable for its roads, cultivation, and privileges, but more particularly for the industry of its inhabitants. This is chiefly exercised upon iron, the principal production of the province. In order to improve this manufacture, the Biscayans have recourse to foreign correspondence, public lectures, and travelling. At Bergara, there is a patriotic school, in which metallurgy is taught by some able professors. They have already sent students into Sweden and Germany, where they have acquired such knowledge in the mines, and in the shops of the manufactures, as has been very useful to their country. The inhabitants, separated by their situation, language, and privileges, weak as they are, and confined within narrow limits, are called by nature and policy to feel the spirit of patriotism, and are obedient to the call. This noble sentiment produced the school of Bergara, where the nobility of the country are brought up, at the expence of the states; and the same spirit of patriotism has lately given new employment to the industry of the Biscayans, by digging the port of Deva.

Their privileges, says Swinburne, are very extensive, and they watch over them with a jealous eye. They have no bishops in the province, and style the King only Lord of Biscay. In the year 1477, when Ferdinand, King of Castille, entered Biscay with the Bishop of Pampeluna in his suite, the people rose in a tumultuous manner, and represented to his Majesty, that it was contrary to their laws and constitution, to admit a bishop into their province, and the King was obliged to send him back; they even went so far as to dig up the earth the holy man had trod upon, and burnt it.

The Biscayans are stout, brave, and choleric, to a proverb. The best sailors in Spain belong to the ports of Biscay, and its mountains produce a very valuable race of soldiers. The men are well-built and active, like all mountaineers. "The people of Biscay and Navarre (says Baretti) are in general as well-limbed as any of the petty nations living on the Apennines; yet in no part of these mountains are there so many handsome women as in Biscay: almost every posada here offers at least one beautiful face. The sex, however, of this province, have the reputation of being the most arrant coquettes. Besides my own observations, I have been told by Biscayans, themselves, in the jollity of conversation, that almost the women will ogle, and whisper, and smile, and flatter, and squeeze your hand, to draw presents from you, if possible, without intending to make the least return.

Many of the Biscayan women, of the lower class, while very young, go to service in the neighbouring provinces, where their neatness, and simplicity of their general dress, particularly of their head-dress, renders them distinguishable at the first glance. Numbers of them are to be met with at Bayonne, and in the Pays de Bigorre. The necessity that these females are under of learning more than one language, is far from impairing their beauty, as no new language can be learned without acquiring new ideas; and the more ideas a woman has the more agreeable she will be. But the Biscayans turn all their talents, as well natural as acquired, to no other vices but coquetry; and the more agreeable they know themselves to be, the more they expect from every man who covets their acquaintance; ever alluring, ever kindling hope, and for ever disappointing.

It is a general custom in the southern provinces of France, to employ female servants in the inns, as well as in private houses, and this draws a great number of young women from Biscay into the different parts of Gascony and Guienne, where they are certain of being preferred to the natives. The filles Gasconnes are in general short and clumsy, with broad, tawny, and unmeaning faces; but the filles Basquoises, or Biscayan girls, are almost all of a good size, and well-shaped, with lively black eyes, fair complexions, and a smartness about them, very attracting. Then, the manners of the Gasconnes are coarse and vulgar, and they do not scruple to throw themselves into the power of every one who will give them the smallest trifle; but the Basquires are shy and artful, and will go no farther than wheedling and cajoling, seeking only to scrape together a few hundred livres, that they may return to their own country and marry.

With respect to the men, it is said in Spain, that they will rather steal than beg; not as being remarkable for thieving, but that they scorn begging. They have a tradition in Biscay, that one of their kings declared them all Hidalgos, and this is the reason that they will not degrade themselves by asking alms. It is said there are more natives of Biscay than of any other province at Madrid, and that no Biscayan goes there who is not certain to find employment. This is owing to a prevailing opinion that the Biscayans are more active and intelligent than the rest of the Spaniards: besides, like the Scotch in England, and the Savoyards in France, they stand by each other, and promote the interest of their courtrymen more sedulously than is practised by the inhabitants of the other provinces in Spain. In one respect, however, they differ from the Scotch, and the Savoyards; for as soon as they have acquired a little property at Madrid, they retire to their own dear mountains, where they build themselves comfortable habitations, and live the remainder of their days in ease and comfort; but the Savoyards, when once settled in France, think no more of the western side of Mount Cenis, except they be porters, chimney-sweepers, and marmote-shewers. Nor is the case much different with the Scotch, who, when they have once got a footing in any other country, especially in England, will submit to any thing, rather than return back to their own country.

This continual return of the Biscayans to the place of their nativity, is the reason that one sees, even on the highest mountains, so many houses well-built, with panes of glass to the windows, and neat window-shutters, painted yellow or green; a sight which does not occur in the other provinces of Spain.

"The most singular thing in their dress (says Swinburne) is the coverings of their legs; they wrap a piece of coarse grey or black woollen cloth round them, and fasten it with many turns of tape; it answers precisely to the idea I have of Malvolio's cross-gartering in the Twelfth-night. The garb of the women, who are beautiful as angels, tall, light, and merry, is neat and pastoral; their hair falls in long plaits down their backs; and a veil or handkerchief twisted round in a coquettish manner, serves them for a very becoming head-dress; on Sundays they generally wear white, tied with rose-coloured knots.

Their language is called aboriginal, being unmixed with either Latin, French, or Spanish. It is so totally different from the Castillian, that scarce any of the peasants are to be met who understand one word of Spanish.

The kingdom of Navarre, which, by way of distinction from Lower Navarre, belonging to the French, is called Upper Navarre, borders to the west on Old Castille and Biscay; and to the south on Arragon; to the east it is bounded by Arragon and the Pyrennees, which divide it from the French Navarre; and also by the same mountains towards the north. Its extent, from north to south, is about 80 miles, and from east to west is something more than
BISCAYAN PEASANTS

70. The name of this province is modern, being entirely unknown to the ancients. It is watered by three rivers, all falling into the Ebro. Here are two main roads, leading over the Pyrenean mountains into France; the one from Pampaluna, along the valley of Batan, to Bayonne; the other that of Roncevaux which is the best, from Pampeluna, by the way of Taraffa, to S. Jean de Port.

The greatest part of this province, lying among the Pyrenean mountains, its chief wealth consists in graziery. The mountains abound in game of all kinds, as boars, stags, roe-bucks, wild-fowls, &c. The most remarkable of its vallies are Roncal or Roncevaux, where Charles the Great lost a battle against the Spaniards. The King of Spain receives no revenue from this country, all the imposts and duties being, by compact, to be employed in the services. Navarre, from the year 718 to 1512, had its peculiar kings, of different families; but in the last mentioned year was reduced by Ferdinand the Catholic, under the frivolous pretence that its monarch had been declared an enemy to the church, and excommunicated by the Pope.

Pampeluna is the town of most note, and capital of the province. It is situated in a plain, near the Pyrenees, on the river Arga, about ten leagues to the South of Fontarabia. This city was formerly called Pompeiopolis, as having been built by Pompey. It is a large city, surrounded by a wall, and defended by two castles, one within the city, and the other without. The fortifications of the city are inconsiderable, but the castle without is situated on a high rock, and well fortified. Pampeluna is at present a bishop's see, and the residence of the Viceroy. It contains, likewise a university, founded in 1608. What is more remarkable in this spacious town is, a spacious square, in which the bull-fights are held.

There are two other towns in this province, Ollita and Taffala, in both of which are palaces belonging to the ancient kings of Navarre. They are handsome towns, well fortified, and situated in fine vallies. The latter contains likewise a university. The city of Tudala, on the river Ebro, is, from its delightful situation, the residence of many persons of quality.

CHAP. XIV. Asturias and Gallicia.

THE principality of the Asturias borders to the west on Gallicia, to the north on the sea, to the east on Biscay, and to the south on Old Castille. Its extent, from north to south, is about 18 leagues, and from east to west about 45. It is said to take its name from the river Asta or Astura. The air of this province is much colder than any other part of Spain, occasioned by its high mountains and northerly situation. Towards the south it is separated from Leon and Old Castille by high mountains, covered with woods, so that the country is thinly peopled; yet the soil produces a great deal of grain, plenty of fruit, and excellent wine. Its horses were, of old, famous, and much sought after, on account of their spirit and goodness. They are supposed to be the strongest and swiftest in Spain. This country, being naturally defended by high mountains, held out for a long time against the Romans, and was never entirely conquered by the Moors.

The nobility of this province value themselves on their descent from the old Goths, and on their blood not being adulterated either with the Moors or the Jews. For after the unfortunate battle which Roderic, King of the Goths, fought with the Moors, near Xeres, the Gothic prince retreated, with a considerable number of his nobility, into the mountains of Asturias, and there collected a small army; but finding himself unable to face the enemy in the field, he betook himself, with 1000 brave Goths, retired into a large cave in the mountains of Ausena, and, on the approach of the Moors, sallied forth, and finally routed them. This defeat, and bold stand made by the Goths is, to this day, so celebrated in Spain, that all the inhabitants of this mountain are looked upon as true Goths, and enjoy particular privileges; and, though they are but peasants, and go in great numbers from this mountain into the other provinces of Spain to find work, yet they disdain to be called by any other title than that of Goths. Both great and small give themselves the appellation of Illustre Goths, or Illustres Montagnes; and, amidst their poverty, look upon it as ignominious, to intermarry with great and rich families of any other race. They are likewise so much esteemed, that other families frequently give considerable sums to many amongst them, but the greatest honour of this district arises from its belonging to the hereditary Prince of Spain, who takes his title from it. It is divided into two unequal parts, and hence arises the name of the Asturias, as used in the plural number.

Oviedo, anciently Brigetum, the capital of all Asturia, and the only place which bears the name of Civdad, is seated on a plain, in a kind of elevation, between the little rivers Ove and Deva; the first of which has given the name of Ovetum to the city, from whence comes Ovedo. The town is well-built, but not considerable either for its trade or its riches. Its population is estimated at between 7 and 8,000 inhabitants. The cathedral boasts a vast number of relics, which were brought hither from all parts of Spain, by way of securing them against the Moors. The houses about the church of S. Salvador, stand on Piazzas, and make a very handsome appearance, but the grand square in the centre of the town, where all the streets terminate, and in which are the colleges, composing the university, are its principal ornament.

This town, like most other large cities in Spain, contains an hospicio, or general workhouse.

Besides this refuge for the poor, and for their children, the Bishop causes money to be distributed every morning at his gates. In addition to all this, the canons scatter plentifully their alms as they walk the streets; and the convents administer daily bread and broth to those who will apply. When sick, the poor have, besides, a commodious hospital ready to receive them.

"Notwithstanding all that has been done, (says Townsend) beggars cloathed in rags, and covered with vermin, swarm in every street." Is it not therefore evident they have done too much, increasing both the numbers and distresses of the poor, by the very means which have been employed to relieve their wants.

Nothing can exceed the simplicity of manners in this distant province. Polished nations would be offended at the freedom with which they speak of things, which, in the more advanced state of society must not even be hinted at; yet such language neither gives disgust nor tends to excite the passions. On the other hand, familiarities, such as in other countries would be esteemed innocent, are here highly offensive.

They wear no paint, no powder, no curls, nor any cap, they have nothing but a bit of ribbon bound round the head. In this simplicity of dress youth and beauty enjoy their triumph; but old women, for want of borrowed charms, have nothing which can please the eye. They meet with attention however from the gentlemen, nor do they appear insensible to these attentions.

In this province oxen supply the place of horses, and consequently beef is cheap. No distinction in price is made between the prime and the coarse pieces, nor between fat meat and lean, because the prices are fixed by the magistrate, without respect to quality. The consequence is, that the meat is never so good as it would be, were the market free. Beef, in this province, is under three-halfpence, mutton something more than two-pence per lb. and bread is little more than a penny for the pound.

The resemblance between the Asturias and many parts of England is very striking. The aspect of the country is the same, as to verdure, inclosures, live hedges, and woods; there is a similar mixture of woodlands, arable, and rich pastures; there are the same kind of trees, crops, fruit and cattle.

Both suffer by humidity in winter, and both enjoy a temperate climate, with this difference, that with respect to humidity and heat, the scale preponderates on the side of the Asturias. The atmosphere of this province is at times so charged with vapour, that for many months together they seldom see the sun. This happens generally in the spring months, May, June, and July; but then, to balance this, in August and September, they as seldom see a cloud.

Besides the relaxing humidity of the climate, the common food of the inhabitants contributes much to the prevalence of the many diseases which infest this country. They eat little flesh, they drink little wine. Their usual diet is India corn, with beans, peas, chesnuts, apples, pears, melons and cucumbers; and even their bread, made of Indian corn, has neither barm nor leaven, but is unfermented. Their common drink is water.

Agues, fevers, and even pleurisies, often terminate here in scabies, and this frequently gives place to them, returning however when the fever ceases. In adults it takes possession of the hands and arms, with the legs and thighs; covering them with a filthy crust. In wet weather the itching becomes more troublesome, and towards midnight is insupportable.

There are no fewer than 20 hospitals in the Asturias for the leprosy. It appears in different forms. Some patients are covered over with a white dry scurf, and look like millers; in others the skin is almost black, full of wrinkles, and covered with a loathsome crust; others have one leg and thigh enormously swelled, and full of ulcers, sending forth a most abominable smell. Some patients, instead of the great leg, have a most enormous swelling of one hand, or else have the features of the face swoln to such a degree as scarce to retain the human form; others again have carbuncles, big as hazle nuts, all over the surface of their body.

Although subject to such a variety of diseases, there are few countries which can produce more examples of longevity. Many of the inhabitants live to the age of 100, some of them to 110, and others still longer. If we consider the temperature of the climate, arising from its humidity, together with the cooling winds from the Atlantic, and from the snowy mountains, we must naturally expect to find instances of advanced age, with the prevalence of chronical complaints, and of such diseases as are seldom mortal: in warmer and in drier climates nature comes sooner to maturity, is subject to more acute diseases; and like combustibles, when burning with a vivid flame, is rapidly consumed.

The houses of people of fashion in this country are generally built round a court, with corridors; something like many of our great old fashioned inns.

The ground-floor is generally occupied wholly by servants, except one corner, which is made use of as a chapel. The bed-chambers contain, some two, some three, and others four beds; for in Spain, even in respectable families, several gentlemen will occupy one chamber.

Custom reconciles them to this, and by the practice of Scotland, France, and Spain, we may see clearly that other nations can submit to that which is most disgusting to an Englishman; and we may further observe, even in our own cottages, that the olfactory nerves may be reduced to such a degree of torpid insensibility, as to be happy and contented in the midst of filth and nastiness.

The walls are white-limed, and the floors smoothed with the adze, but none of them are ever planed, nor have the chambers any ceilings to them. The beds likewise have no curtains. They have large halls in their houses, resembling those in our old English mansions; and the stile of living resembles the old British hospitality; the long oak table, surrounded by strong oak benches, being every day very plentifully covered.

Agriculture is at a very low ebb in this province; nor are the implements made use of for the purposes of agriculture worthy of imitation. The cart-wheel has no spokes, but consists of a wooden ring, composed of four quadrants, bisected by a plank, of from eight to ten inches wide, which receives the axle-tree, and, being fastened to the wheel turns, round with it. The farmers, not satisfied with the friction arising from a wooden axle-tree, of eight inches diameter, revolving without grease, six two wooden pins, which confine it in its place, so near together, that they bind hard against it; and this they do for the sake of the noise arising from the friction, and which is considered as exciting the oxen to labour, and thereby precluding the necessity of either speaking to them, or pricking them with goads. This music, which resembles the sound of a postboys's horn, is heard from morning to night, in every part of the Asturias, and at a distance is not unpleasant even to a stranger; but to the peasant, is the never-failing source of calm enjoyments.

The province of Gallicia, which was formerly a kingdom, is bounded on the south by Portugal, on the north and west by the sea, being joined to the east by Asturia and Leon. It receives its name from the ancient Gallazi, the most powerful and numerous of the several nations who inhabited it. Its extent from north and south is nearly 40 leagues; and almost as many in breadth from east to west. This is the most maritime of all the Spanish provinces, and enjoys accordingly the greatest number of sea-ports, amongst which Corunna and Ferrol, are the most considerable. Cape Finisterre, one of its promontories, the Promontorium Artabrum & Celticum of the ancients, lies towards the west, and is well-known to all navigators. The coast enjoys a temperate air, but in the inland parts it is somewhat colder and very damp. This country is so mountainous as to admit of few levels, and, the sea-coast excepted, is but thinly inhabited in respect of the other provinces. It has no less than 70 rivers and smaller streams, the principal of which is the Minho.

This province produces little corn, but makes up for that deficiency in wine, flax, and lemons. It has also very fine pastures. The sea abounds in excellent fish, particularly sardines and salmon, and a particular kind, called bezugos. Its forests also afford good ship-timber. The universal poverty of the inhabitants obliges great number of them to seek a living in the neighbouring provinces, where they let themselves out to the most servile and laborious employments. For this humble industry they are despised by the other Spaniards.

Gallicia was raised to a monarchy in the year 1060, by Ferdinand, King of Castille and Leon; and Ferdinand the Catholic, quelled the mutinous temper of the Gallicians, particularly of the nobility, who, for a long time, had been wanting in due regard to the King's Governor. This province contains 64 cities and towns, but few of the latter are any ways considerable.

St. Jago de Compostella, the capital of Gallicia, is situated in a fine plain, surrounded with little rising hills, and watered with a great many small streams. It lies 30 miles south of Corunna, and 40 to the east of Cape Finisterre. The town contains about 2000 houses. It is a rich, flourishing city, better accommodated with provisions and the luxuries of life, than most towns in Spain, from its vicinity to the sea. In this town are to be seen fine piazzas, with several monasteries of both sexes, and beautiful churches, amongst which the cathedral is particularly worthy of notice, as in it is kept the pretended body of the Apostle James the younger, the titular saint and patron of all Spain, which, towards the close of the ninth century, they affirm to have been discovered by a divine revelation. The rage for pilgrimage is much abated; but there are people living, who remember when it was the fashion for all young men of spirit, both in Italy and France, before they married, to go as pilgrims to St. Jago; and even now it is not uncommon to see some few old men, and many companies of young ones, come to this place, on a pilgrimage, from the most distant parts of Europe. The see of the archbishop is one of the richest in Spain, having a revenue of 70,000 crowns per annum, and the chapter as much more.

It was from this city that the military order of St. James had its origin, in 1170, under the reign of Ferdinand II. King of Leon. The knights wear a medal, upon which there is a red sword, at the button-hole of their coats. This order has 87 commanderies in the kingdoms of Castille and Leon, which annually produce 2,72,000 ducats.

About 14 leagues south-east of Compostella, lies Orense, famous for its mineral baths. Some are only of such a moderate heat that persons may bathe in them, and others are so very hot that eggs may be dressed in them; but they are all very much resorted to, and are said to possess great virtue in the removal of different diseases. These baths appear to have been known in the time of the Romans, and had the appellation of aquae calidae. The town is situated at the foot of a mountain, on the river Minho; and, what is very remarkable, in that part which lies near the mountain, the air is extremely cold, and the winter of great length; whilst the other, which lies on the side of the plain, enjoys all the pleasures of the spring, and the autumnal fruits, on account of the springs, which warm the air with their exhalations. On the outside of one of the gates is a noble arch, so very lofty that a man of war might pass under it, with all its sails standing. The fields, in the environs of this town, are very rural, and well cultivated, and, among other delicious fruits, produce grapes that make most delicious wine.

The manners and customs of the inhabitants of this province appear to differ very little from those in the adjoining province, which we have already described. "The inhabitant of Gallicio (says Peyron) may be compared to the native of Auvergne; he quits his country, and is employed in the rest of Spain, much in the same manner as persons of the same class, from Auvergne and Limosin are in France; that is, in sweeping chimnies, cleaning shoes, &c."

The climate appears, likewise, to resemble that of the Asturias, being very humid; nor are instances of longevity wanting in this province. The curate of the parish of S. Juan de Poyo, A. D. 1724, is said to have administered the sacrament to 13 persons, whose ages, together, made 1499, the youngest of them being 110, and the oldest 127. But, in Villa de Fosfinares, one Juan de Outeyro a poor labourer, died in the year 1726, aged more than 146 years.

CHAP. XVI. Kingdoms of Murcia and Granada.

HAVING now traversed the provinces on the northern coast of Spain, we shall proceed to those which lie on the Mediterranean, beginning first with the kingdom of Murcia, in which is situated Carthagena, one of the most considerable of the sea-ports.

This kingdom is the least of those which compose the monarchy of Spain; it is but 25 leagues in length, and about 23 in breadth. Its principal river is the Segura, which receives its source in New Castille, and, after passing through this province and Valencia, falls into the Mediterranean sea. The air is accounted healthy and pure, and the country produces wine and corn, which are both good, but, being mountainous, not in any great quantity, so that its chief commodities are fine fruits, such as oranges, lemons, &c sugar, honey; silk, and grain, such as rice, peas, &c. Its principal produce appears to be silk. The Moors, when they conquered Spain, are said to have brought thither the mulberry-tree, and to have taught the Spaniards the manner of cultivating it, as also how to prepare and weave the silk. The soil of Murcia is so favourable to this tree, that it more easily grows there than in any other part of Spain. The little kingdom of Murcia is said to contain 355,500 mulberry trees, and to produce annually, 250,000 lbs. of silk.

Every kind of fruit produced in Spain is found in Murcia. It supplies Castille, England, and France, with oranges, lemons, figs, &c. The mountains are covered with shrubs, reeds, and odoriferous, as well as medicinal, plants. The two principal cities of which we mean to speak, are Murcia and Carthagena.

Murcia. Several volumes (says Bourgoanne) have been written upon the antiquities of this city. In the earliest ages it is said to have been called Tadmir, that is, productive of palm-trees. But Cascalis maintains it never had any other name than that of Murcia. These disputes are of little consequence; its antiquity is sufficiently proved by inscriptions, some of which are quoted by Appian, in his description of Spain; and the rest still remain in Murcia.

In its origin Murcia was, like every other city near Carthagena, only a small village. The latter eclipsed them all till it was conquered by Scipio. The Romans no sooner came to the village of Murcia, and observed its agreeable situation, the natural cascades of the river, and the banks covered with myrtle, (where this shrub still flourishes more than in any other part of Spain) than they resolved to consecrate it to their Venus Myrtia, who delighted in myrtle, waters, and fountains: they added an a only to the name, which was Murci.

It was in the fields of Murcia that Scipio, returned from his conquest, celebrated the obsequies of his father and uncle. This celebration consisted in games and combats of Gladiators, and according to Livy, it was not slaves, who were forced to combat, but brave champions, who voluntarily entered the lists, to give proofs of their valour. Murcia remained 616 years under the dominion of the Romans.

It was then taken, dismantled, and sacked, by the Goths, who possessed it 310 years. The Moors, in their turn, came to besiege it, and the inhabitants went out of the city to give them battle. The two armies met in a field, still called Sangorena, from the bloody battle that ensued, in which the Murcians fought with such gallantry that most of them remained dead upon the field. In this extremity the Governor ordered all the women to be clad in armour, and drawn out on the ramparts, whilst, in the character of an ambassador, he went to the Moorish General to capitulate. The Moors, believing the city to be full of soldiers, granted him very advantageous terms; but what was their astonishment, when, upon entering the gates, they found only an army of women! At length, after 527 years possession, the Moors lost it, in 1241; and it has, ever since, remained under the dominion of Spain.

Murcia stands in a plain, which, from east to west, is 25 leagues and a half in length. The Segura runs by the side of the city. This river is decorated with a fine stone bridge, and has a magnificent quay.

"I was exceedingly struck (says Townsend) with the bridge over the Segura, magnificent in itself, and delightful for the prospect it commands of the river, the city, the vale, and the distant mountains, all in the most pleasing points of view."

The entrance to Murcia is by a strait and spacious avenue, well planted, and well watered; to the right and to the left of which, the water, in abundance produces the most luxuriant crops.

This city is divided into 11 parishes, with a cathedral; and contains, by the last return to government, 15000 families. There are nine convents for nuns, and ten for friars.

The principal front of the cathedral is beautiful, but overcharged with ornaments. The three principal doors are of reddish marble, and of the Corinthian order; they are ornamented with 32 statues, as large as life. The Arabian sculpture, which ornaments the pillars, is well executed, and in a good taste.

The inside of the cathedral is spacious. The beauty, lightness, and elegance of Gothic architecture are found throughout.

The altar of the cathedral is of massy silver, and the steps which lead to it are of the same metal.

Among the convents, that of the Cordeliers is the most distinguished. It has a good library, but badly managed, in which are the portraits of many great men, who have rendered themselves famous by arms, letters, and the art of government. The Moorish palace stood formerly upon the ground on which the canvent of the Dominicans is built.

Murcia is surrounded by public walks, which are most delightful. This city, although considerable, and well peopled, has not one single inn; the only lodging to be had in it is as wretched as those found upon the great roads in Spain, generally kept by Gitanos, or Gipsies.

The environs of Murcia exceed any thing of the kind to be met with in Spain. The soil is a rich loam, well watered; and the wide expanse appears like a well cultivated garden. Oranges and lemons, olives and mulberries abound; and the whole valley swarms with such multitudes of men, all active and usefully employed, that they resemble bees, when collecting honey, or returning loaded to the hive. Being dressed in white, they are the more conspicuous. They have only a linen waistcoat, and short trowsers.

Carthagena is announced at a distance by villages, farms, country-houses, and pleasant walks. The principal founders of this city, were Teucer and Asdrubal; but a large city called Contesta, from the name of Testa, King of Spain, is said to have stood upon the same ground, 1412 years before Christ. Teucer came next, and began to embellish and fortify this city; at length, Asdrubal finding its situation delightful, added to its magnificence, and made it the rival of Carthage.

Carthagena remained in the possession of the descendants of Asdrubal, until the year 208 before Christ, when it was conquered by Publius Scipio, and Caius Loelius. It was then governed by Mago, the last Carthaginian chief. Livy tells us, that when Scipio arrived in Spain, Carthagena was, after Rome, one of the richest cities in the world; full of arms, and full of soldiers. Notwithstanding its great resources, Scipio took it, and delivered it up to be pillaged. He brought away with him 64 military banners, 276 gold cups, and 18,000 marks of silver, besides vessels of the same metal; 40,000 measures of wheat, and 160,000 measures of oats; in a word, he acquired such immense treasures, that the historian says, the city itself was the least the Romans gained by the expedition. Ut minimum omnium inter tantas opes bellicas Carthago ipsa fuerit.

It was after this conquest, that Scipio set the great example of temperance and generosity, so much celebrated in that and the succeeding ages. A young female captive of noble extraction, whose beauty attracted the eyes and admiration of the whole camp, being brought before him, Scipio, when he was informed she had been promised in marriage by Lucius, Prince of the Celtiberians, and that the two lovers had a great affection for each other, sent for the young prince, and not only restored him the lady, but forced him to take as a marriage portion, the gold her friends had brought as a ransom; and further offered him at the same time, the friendship of the Roman people.

Carthagena was a long time the Indies of the Romans; and there are still silver mines in the environs. The lead mines in the village of Los Alumbres are very rich; amethysts and precious stones are found in its vicinity; and not far from Hellin, there is a very considerable mine of sulphur.

The country round Carthagena, was formerly called Campo Spartaio, and the appellation of Spartaria, was also given to this city, from the great quantities of Spartum, or Spanish broom, found in the plains and the mountains.

Carthagena was totally destroyed in the wars of Atanagilda, with Agila, King of the Goths in Spain: several antique stones with inscriptions, have been found among the ruins. One of these is now in a garden, in the town of Espinardo, near Murcia. It has one side the stern of a ship, and on the other the figure of Pallas, holding an olive branch; at her feet are the cornucopia, and the caduceus of Mercury. Cascalis, for what reason we know not, attributes this monument to Julius Caesar, and supposes it to have been erected by him, at the time when he formed the design of subjugating the world and his country.

On the land side, Carthagena is defended by a mountain, formed by three hills: in the middle of the city is a high hill, with a fort, now almost in ruins. The harbour is spacious, and so deep, that ships may moor close to the land. It is a bason, hollowed by nature, which seems to have sheltered it from the winds by several hills, placed round it at equal distances; so that from the mole, nothing but the entrance of the harbour, and the bason, are to be seen. No port in the world can be compared with this, for safety and regularity.

The arsenal is very large, and furnished with every thing that can facilitate the building, and fitting out of a ship. Every requisite is in such readiness, that a ship of the line may, in three days, be got ready for sea. At the pleasure of the builder, the water fills the magnificent basons, which serve as stocks, and the ship slides of herself into the sea.

Carthagena occupies the declivity of a hill, with a little intermediate space between that and the harbour. The city is protected from the south and the west by high mountains and barren rocks; but to the north and the east it is open, and communicates with an extensive valley.

The streets are wide, and the houses are commodious. They have generally flat roofs, which, in a climate like this, administers to the comfort of the inhabitants, affording them a cool retreat, where, after sun-set, they may assemble to enjoy the refreshing breeze; and the rainy season being of short duration, these are sufficient to protect the interior of their mansions from humidity.

The cathedral, a miserable pile, is now degraded, and the Bishop's see being removed to Murcia, it is become a parish church. Of the convents, not one is worthy of notice.

There have been here 2,000 criminals, chiefly smugglers, who, being condemned to work in chains, are called presidiarios. They are employed in the most servile labours, some for five years, others for seven; and at the expiration of these terms, like our convicts upon the Thames, are turned loose upon the public, not corrected nor trained to industry, but vitiated by the society of thieves.

In the dock-yard, we omitted to observe a very singular circumstance, viz. that the masts and timber are floated in water, without the least apprehension of their suffering by the worms; because, as they never open their sluices, till the water is become putrid, the evaporation, proceeding with rapidity, leaves a strong brine, in which it is impossible the worm should live; and in the north of Spain, where the evaporation is not sufficient for this purpose, they bury their masts in sand, and by pins prevent their floating when they are covered by the tide.

In this city are made great quantities of the esparto ropes and cables, some of them spun like hemp, and others platted. These cables float on the water, and therefore are not liable to be cut by the rocks on a foul coast. This rush makes good mats for the peasants houses, and of late years, it has been spun into fine thread, for the purpose of making cloth. We have remarked, that this rush is the natural and peculiar production of all the high and uncultivated mountains of the south; and here we cannot help admiring the transcendant goodness of Providence, in giving abundantly to man, in these dry and elevated regions, where neither hemp nor flax will grow, materials proper for his clothing, and the exercise of his industry.

No one who has always lived in a temperate climate, can conceive how much a traveller, who passes the summer in the southern parts of Spain, suffers from the flies. But there is no city, says Townsend, so much molested by swarms of these insects, as Murcia. To disperse them in some houses, they have a large fan, suspended over the dining table, and kept constantly in motion; in others, one of the domestics are constantly engaged in waving the bough, all the time the company is at table; but the great have a servant at their elbow, whose sole business is to keep off the flies with a napkin.

Want of fidelity to matrimonial vows, says the above writer, is equally prevalent at Carthagena, as in the other provinces of Spain. It was here, that a gentleman said one morning to his friend, "Before I go to rest this night, the whole city will be thrown into confusion." This he occasioned himself, by going home an hour before his usual time, to the no small vexation of his wife and her cortego, whose precipitate retreat, and unexpected arrival in his own house, occasioned the like confusion there; and thus, by successive and similar operations, was literally fulfilled the prediction he made in the morning.

We have already traced this corruption of morals to one grand source, the celibacy of the clergy; in addition to this, we may venture to assign another cause, the want of admonition from the pulpit, because the secular clergy seldom or ever preach. The monks, indeed, descant on the virtues of their favourite saint, but they seldom appear solicitous to improve the morals of the people.

Such has been the poverty of Spain, in point of pulpit orators, that they have no author to recommend worthy of being noticed; and if a preacher of more than moderate abilities appears, he is admired as a prodigy, and worshipped as a God.

Such, says Townsend, was a famous capuchin, who visited Carthagena, during my residence in that city; and every evening preached in the great square to more than 10,000 people. This man licensed by the Bishop, and protected by the magistrates, was constantly attended by a guard, to prevent his clothes being torn from his back, to be kept as relics. What he delivered, was heard with the most profound attention, and after a discourse preached by him on the forgiveness of injuries, many were reconciled, and became friends, who had before been at enmity. One sermon, however, had a pernicious tendency, it was, that in cases of heresy, they were bound to accuse, at the tribunal of the inquisition, their nearest and dearest friends; yet so deeply is a sense of honour, gratitude, and filial piety impressed on the human heart, that most of his hearers appeared neither to relish his discourse, nor be convinced by his arguments; but seemed to shudder with abhorrence at his doctrine.

The baths of Archena, four leagues from Murcia, are esteemed useful in all maladies proceeding from the humours, but are prejudicial in venereal cases. They occasion violent and continued transpiration, and it frequently happens, that persons bathing in them, are obliged to change their linen five or six times in the day. Those who drink these waters, must use a great deal of exercise to carry them off. The water is so hot, that it is impossible to support the heat of it, even with the hand, for more than a second; before it is bathed in, it is beaten for a considerable time; it is of a bluish cast, very heavy and nauseous; the froth or scum at the source, takes fire like brandy.

The roads in this province are horrid, and over the high mountains, are no other, than such as the currents have made them.

The kingdom of Granada, sometimes called Upper Andalusia, borders to the west and north on Andalusia; to the north-east on Murcia, and to the east and south by the Mediterranean. It made part of the ancient Boetica, and was inhabited by the Bastula Sexitani, &c. Its extent from east to west, is about 65 leagues, but its breadth varies, being in some places scarce five leagues, and in others at least 20.

This province is intersected in every direction by very lofty mountains, which form delightful vallies. Among the mountains, those called Alpuxarras, are so high, that the coast of Barbary, and the city of Tangiers and Ceuta are discovered from their summits. They are about 17 leagues in length, and 11 in breadth, abounding in fruit trees of great beauty and prodigious size. In these mountains, the wretched remains of the Moors took refuge, so that they are covered with villages, and are extremely populous. These mountaineers seems to have preserved the industrious spirit of their ancestors; they cultivate the vine, and almost every sort of fruit-tree, the produce of which they send to Malaga.

Granada is one of the most healthy and temperate provinces of Spain. It contains an abundance of springs, which water the whole country.

The celebrated baths, so extremely beneficial in diseases proceeding from cold humours, are a league from Granada. Four leagues from them are those of Alicun, which seem to be of a nature entirely opposite, as they are chiefly efficacious in diseases proceeding from acrid humours.

The water of the Darro, being drunk, cures all sorts of diseases in animals. It is termed by the natives, a salubrious bath for their sheep.

The mountains of Granada contain several quarries of fine transparent jasper; black, green, and red marble; mines of granite, amethysts, and other precious stones.

Whilst this province was in the possession of the Moors, it was one of the best cultivated in the world; the number of its inhabitants was immense, and the vallies and mountains were covered with luxuriant plantations of vines and fruit-trees. Each Moor had his allotment of as much ground as sufficed for his habitation, the maintenance of his family, and the provender for his horse, which every man was obliged to keep. These small freeholds formed the general appearance of the country, before the inroads and ravages of the Christians had driven them into cities, mountains difficult of access, or quite away to the coast of Barbary. The single city of Granada, contained 80,000 families, and frequently sent out armies of 30,000 infantry, and 10,000 horse. An Arabian author says, that the kings had a constant supply of 100,000 horses for their own use, and for mounting their cavalry in time of war, and more than once had mustered 200,000 soldiers in actual pay, for the purpose of making war upon the Castillians. But its present state is widely different. Depopulation is a terrible scourge to a country. In many parts of Granada, the lands have no other ornament, than the plants with which nature has covered them. It is still, however, one of the most fertile provinces in Spain, and produces wine, oil, hemp, flax, sugar, cinnamon, oranges, pomegranites, almonds, figs, citrons, lemons, and raisins, in great abundance. The mulberry-tree is cultivated here with success, and the filk it produces, is said to be finer than that of the kingdom of Valencia. Here are also great quantities of honey and wax. Several towns in the mountains near Antequerra, make salt, which the sun prepares from water conveyed into pans. Of the galls, which are found in this country in large quantities, a dye is made for leather. This province likewise produces great plenty of dates, from which considerable advantage is derived, as also from the acorns, which far exceed the finest nuts.

This province first became a distinct kingdom in the 13th century, when the Moorish king Abenhud, who resided at Cordova, having in the year 1236, lost his wife and crown, in a battle against the Christians, his subjects retired to Granada, and chose a new king, who made that city his capital and place of residence. This kingdom, which was the last of the Moorish, contained 32 large towns, and 97 smaller, and continued from the year 1236, to 1492, when Ferdinand the Catholic reduced it, and annexed it to the crown of Castille. The principal cities we shall notice, are Granada and Malaga.

Granada is said to have been one of the largest cities in Spain. It is situated at the foot of the Sierra Nevada, or the snowy mountain, and stands upon two hills, separated by the Darro. The Xenil runs under the walls, and these two rivers are formed by the melting of the snow, with which the mountain is constantly covered. The Darro is said to carry with it small particles of gold, and its name derived from dat aurum, may be alledged as a proof. The Xenil, in like manner, rolls with its streams little pieces of silver. When Charles V. came to Granada, in 1526, with the Empress Isabella, the city presented him with a crown made of gold, gathered from the Darro.

Several authors give to Granada the title of illustrious and famous, and some assert, that it is still the greatest city in Spain. The country round it is • terrestrial paradise, but extremely neglected.

The Moors are said to regret nothing but Granada, of all the losses they have sustained in Spain. They mention it in all their evening prayers, and supplicate Heaven to restore it to their possession. The last Moorish ambassador who came into Spain, obtained permission of the King to visit Granada; and, on entering the Alhambra, or Moorish palace, he shed tears, and could not refrain from exclaiming, that the folly of his ancestors had deprived them and their posterity of this delightful country. The date of the foundation of Granada is said to be 2801 years before Christ. In the time of the Romans it was a municipal colony.

The Moors have left more monuments in Granada than in any other city in Spain. From the great number of inscriptions, and the fine edifices of the Alhambra, and the generalif, or house of pleasure, it might be imagined these people intended Granada as the great depository of their religion, manners, customs, and magnificence. There is not a wall which does not bear some marks of their power; but, notwithstanding, the reign of the Moors in Spain is buried in confusion and obscurity. The ignorance of the Spaniards, their superstition, and hatred of the Moors, have much contributed to this obscurity; they either absolutely destroyed, or suffered time to efface every thing bearing the marks of Mahometanism; and it may be said that chance alone has preserved those still existing, although going daily to decay. What information might not history have derived from them; and how many fables might have been refuted, and erased from our writings?

The royal palace of the Alhambra, in this city, is one of the most entire, as well as the most magnificent, of any edifices, which the Moors erected in Spain. It was built in 1280, by the second Moorish King of Granada; and, in 1492, in the reign of their eighteenth king, was taken by the Spaniards, under the command of Ferdinand, as has been already mentioned. It is situated on a hill, which is ascended on a road, bordered with hedges of imperial myrtle, and rows of elms. On this hill, within the walls of the Alhambra, the Emperor Charles V. began a new palace, in 1568, but it was never finished:—the shell of it remains.

The Alhambra is a mass of many houses and towns, walled round, and built of large stones, of different dimensions. Almost all the rooms have stucco walls and cielings, some carved, some painted, and some gilt, and all over-loaded with various Arabic sentences, such as, 'There is no other God but God;' which is repeated an infinite number of times. All the floors are either marble or tiled; ••e in particular is paved with two slabs of white marble, each upwards of 13 feet long, and about half as broad. Some of the walls are encrusted with a kind of coarse Mosaic, composed of pieces of different coloured tiles, representing stars and soliages.

The first cortile, on entering the palace, is an oblong square, with a fountain at each angle; and in the middle is a canal of running water, deep and wide enough to swim in. Round this cortile are several baths, the walls, floor, and cieling of which are of white marble. In those parts of the Alhambra, where bricks have been employed in the building, the mortar between the bricks is as thick as the bricks themselves. Almost all the columns are of white marble, and usually eight times their diameter, (which is one foot) in length.

The court most to be admired of the Alhambra, is that called the Court of the Lions; it is ornamented with 60 elegant columns, of an architecture which bears no resemblance to any of the known orders, and might he called the Arabic order. "Architecture, (remarks Bourgoanne) like all other arts, owes its origin to nature. The Goths, a northern people, inhabited caves. The Arabs and Saracens spread over the country, lived under tents: hence that difference in the architecture of these nations. The Goths had flat cielings; those of the Arabs were terminated in a point, as may be seen in most of the apartments of the Alhambra."

But to return to this celebrated square; it is paved with white marble, and at the extremities are two fine Mosaic cupolas, painted in gold colour and azure, and supported by several groups of columns. Portraits of several of the Moorish Kings are preserved, under a kind of vaulted ceiling, at one end of the court. Near this place is a cross painted upon the wall, to indicate the place where the first mass was sung in the castle of the Alhambra, after it was taken by Ferdinand.

This magnificent court is surrounded by basons of white marble, which form a kind of cascade ornamented with jets d'éau; but its principal monument, and that from which it takes its name, is an alabaster cup, six feet in diameter, supported by 12 lions, said to have been made in imitation of the brazen sea of Solomon's temple. The cup is of one single piece, ornamented with Arabic figures, and bears an inscription of 24 verses, composed in that language. The lions spout water out of their mouths.

We next entered into the saloon of secrets, which is a small octangular room; a whisper at one corner is distinctly heard from the opposite corner, but from no other place. The bathing-room is entirely of marble and coloured tiles, and in the midst is a fountain, which formerly supplied the baths with water. Here are, besides, a great number of fountains, distributed in various rooms, which still play.

In one of the rooms are two Roman statues of two nymphs, of white marble, as large as life, with cornucopias; and over a door is a very fine oval marble bas-relief, representing Leda with the swan, whose neck is twisted round hers, and is besides in a very indecent posture.

We afterwards walked through the gardens, which abound with orange and lemon-trees, pomegranates, myrtles, &c. At the end is another palace, called Ginaraliph, or the house of love and pleasure, situated on a more elevated station than the Alhambra; from the balconies is one of the finest prospects in Europe, over the whole fertile plain of Granada, bounded by the snowy mountains. Close to the entrance of this palace are two exceeding large cypress trees, which are near 500 years old, and are called cypresses of the Sultana Queen, as she was discovered, under them, in familiar conversation with Abencerrage. In one room the walls are covered with the three following inscriptions, repeated hundreds of times, in Arabic, "God alone conquers,"—"Glory be to God."— "God is my hope."

In the gardens are two jars, or pitchers, of blue and white earthen ware, each seven feet high, and five in diameter, with various inscriptions.

"In examining this abode of magnificence, (says Bourgoanne) the observer is every moment astonished at the new and interesting mixture of architecture and poetry. The palace of the Alhambra may be called a collection of fugitive pieces; and, whatever duration these may have; time, with which every thing passes away, has too much contributed to confirm to them that title."

The city is divided into four wards, the principal of which, called Granada, lies in the plain, and in the vallies, between the two mountains. Here the nobility, clergy, merchants, and most wealthy of the citizens reside. Its public and private buildings are very handsome, and the streets arched for the convenience of supplying the houses with water, by the means of conduits.

The king's tribunal is held in a large and stately edifice, and opposite to it is the Alcaxeria, a vast building, where the merchants have their warehouses. In the Placa Mayor are held the bull-sights. Most of the small houses are Moorish built, or coarse imitations of that manner; the modern masons decorating their walls with uncouth copies of Saracenic Mosaics. "From top to bottom, (says Swinburne) they seem to be nothing but rows of large windows, divided by narrow brick pilasters."

The outsides of the churches are painted in a theatrical taste, and their insides set off with a profusion of marble, brought from the neighbouring mountains. The dark green is the most valuable. Tables of an extraordinary size have been lately cut of that marble. There are also many handsome brown marbles and alabasters, diversified with an infinite number of shades and tints. One whole street of artificers is employed in making little boxes, bracelets, necklaces, and other nick-nacks, which they retail cheap enough. It is usual in gentlemens' houses to frame fine specimens of marble and hang them up in the apartments, by way of ornament.

The cathedral, which, in point of architecture, stands very high in the opinion of the Granadines, is an assemblage of three churches. Ferdinand and Isabella repose before the altar, under a large marble monument, full of figures and grotesques, in a tolerable good style. Over the great door is the emblem of the united monarchies, a bundle of arrows, together, clinched in the talons of an eagle.

The Alameda along the banks of the Xenil, is as pleasant a walk as any in Spain. This and another drive beyond the river, are the chief resort of people both on foot or in coaches: and the beauty of Granada is no where more striking, than from these points of view.

The environs of this town are delightful, even in the depth of winter. Every one allows, that in summer, Granada is a delicious abode, never too hot nor too cool, refreshed by numberless streams, and perfumed by all the sweets wafted from the gardens, scattered over the declivities of the neighbouring hills. Nothing can be more agreeable, though at Christmas, than the walks along the heights of the Alhambra. A great concourse of people is always seen sitting there on the grass, basking in the sun, and diverting themselves as at a fair. Venders of cakes, toys, and liquors, call their wares through the crowd. The women come dressed out in all their finery; black silk petticoats and veils. In that dress, every woman has something singularly alluring. Here, indeed, says Swinburne, the sex is handsome in any dress; their complexions are fairer, their skins clearer, and their cheeks glowing with a brighter tinge, than in any of the faces along the coast. The distance of Granada from the sea-ports, has probably preserved it from the general infection of that odious disease, which rages with such violence in all these trading towns. The surprising purity of the air, must also greatly contribute towards the freshness of their looks. In many houses, a current of water passes in an uncovered channel, through bed-chambers where people sleep, winter and summer, without its having the least bad effect upon their health. Fruit and butchers' meat remain in the Alhambra an unusual length of time, without taint or putrefaction.

The city does not contain more than 50,000 inhabitants; of which number, 18,000 only are useful working hands; the surplus is made up of lawyers, clergymen, children, and beggars. There are not less than 1000 sturdy, able-bodied rascals, who live by arms, and conventual donation.

Here is an academy, as in all the great towns in Spain, for painting, sculpture, and architecture; conducted at the king's expence, and free for every one.

As for the manufactures, they are on the decay, receiving but little encouragement from local situation, and depressed and ruined for want of proper political management. It is not possible to speak of
VIEW of MALAGA

manufactures in Granada, without recalling to mind the expulsion of the Moors. It is universally acknowledged they were numerous; and that in consequence of their industry and frugality, they had acquired opulence and power. Philip III. in the year 1609, banished 140,000 from the kingdom of Valencia, and 600,000 from Seville, Murcia, and Granada. If to these we add the numbers who perished by famine and the sword, we shall be inclined to state the loss to Spain, at 1,000,000 of its most active subjects.

This loss, added to the previous expulsion of 800,000 Jews, with all their wealth, in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, was under such a government as that of Spain, irreparable.

The Moors are acknowledged by the best Spanish writers, to have excelled in agriculture, particularly in watering their lands, in the cultivation of mulberry-trees, the sugar cane, rice, and cotton; in their peculiar breed of horses, and in the manufactures of silk, paper, and gunpowder, first brought into Europe by them. How then could it be reconciled to the system of sound policy, to subject the country to such a loss?

By their expulsion, houses went to ruin and decay, lands were left uncultivated, commerce was neglected, and manufactures felt the severest shock. The sudden departure of this multitude, left a vacuity, which it was not easy to fill up; more especially by a nation, which, having for the space of seven centuries been trained to war, had learnt in that long interval, to look down with contempt upon all who were engaged in the mechanic arts, and more especially to despise those occupations in which their antagonists excelled.

Numerous privileges and immunities enjoyed by the Hidalgos, or Knights, have contributed very much to confirm hereditary prejudices to the detriment of trade. Till the year 1784, their persons and goods were free from arrest. They are not sent to the common gaols, but either confined in castles or in their own house on their parole of honour. They are not hanged, but strangled. They are exempted from various taxes, to which others are liable. None but the royal family can be quartered on them. To conclude, the noble female conveys all these privileges to her husband and children, in the same manner as the eldest daughter of the titular nobility transmits the title of her ancestors.

The proportion of Hidalgos in this province, is not considerable, for out of 653,000 inhabitants, only about 2000 are nobles; but in the kingdom of Leon, where there is not one third of that population, the knights amount to 22,000.

The manners of the inhabitants are nearly the same as in the other inland cities. The morning is employed in business by those who have any thing to do, or in visits to the ladies. They dine early, and eat after the Spanish fashion, with the sopa, the olla, and various kinds of meat, stewed in their little pitchers, except at one or two of the principal houses, where the French cookery prevails. After dinner they go to the fiesta, in the evening to the paseo, or public walk. When the evening closes, they assembly at the Tertulia, where they generally amuse themselves with cards.

Their morals are much like the rest of Spain; the monks are exceedingly debauched, and the women do not want admirers.

Malaga is a small, but very ancient city. The Phoenicians built it several centuries before Christ, and called it Malacha, on account of the great quantities of salt fish sold there. Ptolemy and Pliny give it the name of Malaca; and the latter adds, that it belonged to the allies of the Romans. Antoninus, in his Itinerary, describes a road from Castelon to Malaca, and another from Malaca to Gades or Cadiz. Strabo speaks of it as a Carthaginian colony, very commercial and famous for its salted provisions.

After having been built by the Phoenicians, it passed successively under the dominion of the Carthaginians, Romans, Goths, and Moors. The first sovereign who swayed the sceptre there, and made it the seat of empire, was Haly Abenhamith. When this monarch had established his sovereignty over the kingdoms of Granada and Murcia, he marched at the head of his victorious troops to Cordova, where having slain the usurper Zuleman, he took possession of the vacant throne, and left the united empire to his posterity.

It was not till the year 1487, that Ferdinand and Isabella recovered Malaga from the dominion of the Moors. At that period, it must have been a place of considerable strength, and two strong towers, with their communicating walls, appear to have been the chief dependance of the besieged.

The town is situated in a valley of no great extent, on the side of a deep ravin, which in summer contains no water, but in winter affords a passage to a considerable river. A Moorish castle on the sharp point of a rock, commands every part of it. Bourgoanne gives it the appellation of a handsome city, and that the Mole is supported by a magnificent quay. Townsend's description of the city is, that the houses are high, the streets contracted, and that many of them are not more than eight feet wide, others not even so wide, and that they are all badly paved, and dirty even to a proverb.

Of the buildings, whether public or private, the only one worthy of the least attention, is the cathedral, a very stupendous pile, begun by Philip II. while married to Mary, Queen of England. Their united arms are still to be be seen over the door. It is assured by some travellers, who have measured both churches, that this cathedral is as large as that of St. Paul's in London.

The convents, though numerous, are few of them remarkable, either for architecture, or for any monuments of art. The bishopric is a very considerable one, being estimated to bring in near £17,000 sterling a year.

There are about 14 foreign houses, says Swinburne, settled in trade at Malaga, who export 5000 butts of wine a year, of which the price runs from 10 to 30 pounds a butt. Till within these last 20 years, the quantity sent off was double, but no difference being made in England, on the duties between old and new wine, the exporter grew careless in the quality of the wine sent, and the demand of it sell one half.

Townsend, on the other hand, says, that one merchant, whom he names Martinis, exported 5000 butts a year, and other merchants in the same proportion to their usual sales. The other exports are fruit, oil, and fish. Their fish are anchovies, of which, in years of great abundance, they have sold 10,000 barrels, of two quintals each. It is computed there are from 800 to 1000 vessels, which enter the port of Malaga every year; of these one tenth only are Spanish.

The chief dependance of this country, is on the vines. These are cultivated with much labour, and at a great expence: when it is considered that these vineyards are always on the declivity of hills, inclined towards the scorching sun, it may be readily conceived, that the labour is severe; and that the people, who, with unremitted application, perform this task, cannot deserve the character of drones. The peasants of no country upon earth, are more patient of heat, hunger, and thirst, or capable of greater exertions, than this very people, who have been accused of indolence. In the district of Malaga, it is computed there are 14,000 vine presses, chiefly employed in making the rich wines, which if white, from the nature of the country round Malaga being high, rugged, and pointed, is called mountain; if red, from the colour, vino tinto, known to us by the name of tent.

For the purpose of making these wines fuller in the body, and sweeter than they would otherwise be, the grapes are left to be very ripe; then, being cut, they are exposed to the sun to evaporate their moisture, after which they are pressed, and put into vessels, with a due proportion of inspissated vinous syrup.

Murders and assassinations, with every species of violence and excess, must, without the strenuous exertions of the magistrate, and the strict execution of the laws, be frequent in a country, where, whenever the wind blows over land, all the passions are inflamed, and in some persons, almost to frenzy. Yet here justice, when most awakened, pursues offenders with a tardy step, slow in its approach, and uncertain in its vengeance. Instances are cited of criminals, who have died forgotten in their prisons, and of others, who, whilst under sentence of death, have married, had numerous offsprings, and been brought forth to execution, when all recollection of their crimes had been long since obliterated.

In summer, the inhabitants of these sultry regions, where the overwhelming heat of the sun is succeeded by the refreshing coolness of the evening, wander abroad; and when the light is gone, all the young people bathe for hours in the sea. The sexes, however, do not bathe promiscuously, but at some distance from each other. At such seasons, to prevent intrusion, the spot where the ladies are, is guarded by centinels with loaded muskets, and should a gentleman attempt to swim round to them, it must be at the hazard of his life. Whenever, therefore, a young person is determined to intrude, he goes in disguise as the female attendant of some frail fair, and in that character passes unobserved.

This custom of bathing every night, is practised not so much for pleasure as for health, being intended to obviate the inconvenience arising from the excessive heat. Yet, notwithstanding, the diseases proceeding from relaxed fibres, are very prevalent: (for not to mention those which arise from irritability of nerves, the consequence of debility,) tertian and putrid fevers rage with such violence, that more than 3000 persons died, (says Townsend) in the year he was there, besides multitudes in the city and its environs.

CHAP. XVIII. Of the Province or Kingdom of Cordova, and Andalusia.

THIS ancient kingdom is one of the smallest in Spain, it has been by some writers comprehended under Andalusia, which in former times comprised Granada, Cordova, and Seville; but the province of Cordova, which was the eastern part of Andalusia, having been by later writers spoken of separately, we shall follow that division, and include only the kingdom of Seville, under the general name of Andalusia, of which, in the ancient division, it formed the western part.

In the province of Cordova, there appears little in its modern state to attract attention, busides its capital; it is situated in a plain of great extent, bounded on the south by swelling hills, cultivated to their very summits, and on the north by a chain of rugged mountains, the continuation of the Sierra Morena. Through the midst of the plain, runs the Guadalquivir, and the whole country being well wooded, well watered, and well cultivated, cannot be surpassed either in riches or beauty.

This city, anciently called Corduba, was illustrious, so far back as the time of the Romans. Strabo says, it was founded by Marcellus, and was the first Roman colony established in Spain. All who have written on Cordova, have called it the mother of men of genius. In the first ages after the foundation of this city, it possessed a university, in which all the sciences were cultivated. Strabo says, the ancient books of the Turdetani, their poverty and their laws, all written in verse, were here preserved. It had the honour of giving birth to the two Seneca's, and to Lucan the poet.

And when Abdoulraman, after subduing the south of Spain, had established here the seat of his dominion. A. D. 759, the sciences, with arts and arms, which were every where else abandoned, took up their residence, and flourished in this city. It was within the walls of this city, that the 30 philosophers and physicians, who composed, and put in order the works of Avicenna were formed.

This city (says Peyron) has preserved nothing of its ancient grandeur, except a vast enclosure, filled with houses half in ruins, and the famous mosque built by Abdoulraman, in the eighth century. This monument is really worthy the attention of the curious. After the conquest of Cordova, it was converted into a cathedral, and not more than half of it now exists; but such as it is, nothing would equal its magnificence, were the height proportioned to its extent.

The roof is sustained by a great number of coumns, placed in such an irregular manner, as to make it very difficult to count them. They are reckoned to be above 800; Townsend says he should suppose there were many more. Some descriptions of this church, reckon 29 aisles, others only 19, but the whole is such a scene of confusion, as renders it very difficult to give any tolerable idea of this building. It is said to have been a temple of Janus before the time of the Moors, which is very probable, from some of the columns having Corinthian capitals. The columns are each of a single piece, some of marble, some of jasper, of granite, of porphyry, of alabaster, of verde antico, &c. The square before this church is very beautiful, being planted with 80 large orange trees; in the midst is a pond full of tench, and on each side a fountain continually playing; these are environed with cypress and palm trees.

A bridge of 16 arches, defended by a large Moorish tower, leads from the south into Cordova, and near the end of the bridge, stands the above mosque, converted into a cathedral. The walls of the town are in many places just as the Romans left them.

This city contains 32,000 inhabitants, 14 parishes, and 44 convents. Few of the public or private buildings are conspicuous for their architecture. The great square is large and regular, and surrounded by porticos. The bishop's palace is seated on the side of the river, and his gardens are open to the public.

The ancient palace of the Moors has been converted into stables, in which 100 Andalusian horses are generally kept. Their genealogy is carefully preserved, and the name and age of each written over the place in which he stands; and as the horses are very spirited, their hinder feet are fastened to iron rings, fixed to a staple in the ground. The mares are kept in the environs, and in the proper season, the horses are taken to them.

Cordova is the greatest market for horses in all Spain; it is here that the most beautiful and so justly celebrated Andalusian horses are to be seen, which it is death to export; they are all long tailed and entire, very few geldings being seen in Spain. Mates are only kept for breeding and treading out the corn: these are allowed to be exported. They are fed with wheat straw, which is preferable to hay, by reason of its juicy delicacy; sometimes barley is given to them.

"This city (say Twiss) is the most agreeable of any in Spain for a place of residence:—Here are about 30 noble families, who alternately spend the evenings at each other's houses. They live in great splendor, and have equipages much more magnificent than in any other part of Spain: here are 14 or 15 coaches, chariots, or phaetons, which were lately made in London, and as many more procured from Paris. All these (says the above writer) I had an opportunity of seeing drawn by four and six long-tailed beautiful prancing stone-horses, as it was then Whitsuntide-fair; the footmen were all dressed in gold and silver laced liveries. At a ball to which I was invited, the English country dances consisted of near 30 couple; the refreshments were, chocolate, lemonade, ice-creams, cakes, and various kinds of wines and liqueurs. The saloon we danced in, very large, hung with crimson damask, enriched with several of the St. Ildefonso looking-glasses; the ceiling of white stucco, with gilt foliages; and the whole of these elegant decorations executed in the French taste. Among the company much more freedom might be observed than at any grand ball in England, and none of that obstinate shyness and reserve, so peculiarly charasteristic of the British nation. Most of the furniture in these palaces was English, as chairs, tables, carpets, &c."

Upon the borders of this province, on the Sierra Morena, or chain of mountains, separating Andalusia from New Castille, and called Morena, from its brown colour, is the new colony of La Carolina, planted a few years since by the king, in a very extensive tract of woody mountainous country. The first settlers were Germans; but, from eating unwholesome herbs, and drinking too freely of spirits, above half of them died; and now the inhabitants are a mixture of Germans, French, Savoyards and Spaniards.

They talk of 10,000 families being already settled here. Every new comer, on application, receives a lot of land, a house, two cows, one ass, five sheep, as many goats, six hens with a cock, one pregnant sow, a plough, and a pick-axe, with other emoluments of inferior value. They begin with 50 fanegas of land, of 10,000 square feet each; and, when they have cultivated these, they receive 50 more, free of all rent for the first ten years; and, after that period, subject only to the royal tythes.

La Carolina, the capital of all the colonies, stands on a fine hill, towering over the whole settlement. For the sake of thus overlooking the rest of the plantations, they have placed it in a spot deficient in wood and water; and reduced themselves to the necessity of digging an incredible number of wells, for the purposes of drinking, and watering their gardens. The whole town was new from the foundations, for there was not a cottage there ten years since. The streets are wide, and drawn in straight lines, but the ground is not sufficiently levelled; the houses are upon one uniform plan, without the least decoration. All the flat on the crown of the hill is laid out in kitchen-gardens, and planted with avenues of elms, to serve hereafter as public walks.

Considering that the town has been built and peopled in less than ten years, we cannot but admire the energy and zeal of Olavidé, the founder, who conceived the idea of introducing agriculture and arts in the desart mountains of the Sierra, where rapine and violence had for ages established their dominion. "This colony, however, (says Townsend) is far from prospering; which has been generally attributed to the want of a market for the surplus of their produce."

The same remarks have been made by Swinburne, who says, there does not seem to be an outlet from this settlement, in case their manufactures should arrive at any perfection, for it is extremely remote from the sea, and many days journey by land from the great cities in Spain, where the consumption of their commodities might be expected to turn to any account.

Andalusia is bounded by that long chain of mountains, called Sierra Morena, on the north; by Murcia and Granada on the east; by Granada, the Streights of Gibraltar, and the Atlantic on the south; and by Portugal, from which it is separated from the Guadiana on the west; its extent, from east to west, is about 90 leagues; but its breadth varies very much, being in some places not above 30. It has the advantage of near 70 leagues of sea-coast.

The name of Andalusia, which it owes to the Vandals who settled here in the fifth century, is derived from Vandalenhaus, and from thence, by corruption, came Andalusia. In former times it was called Tartessis and Boetica. The Moors took possession of this province in the eighth century. The river Guadalquavir, by the ancients called Boetis and Tartessus, traverses the whole country, and the Guadiana, as we have before remarked, separates it, to the west, from the Portuguese Algarve. Of the other smaller rivers, some run directly into the sea; as the Odier and the Tinto, the water of which latter river cannot be drank, being noxious even to herbs and the roots of trees, and having neither fish nor any living creature in it; and the Guadalate, or river of oblivion. Others fall into the Guadalquivir, as the Guadiamar, and the Xenil, which rises in Granada, &c.

Andalusia is reckoned the finest province in all Spain, abounding in exquisite fruits of all kinds; honey, excellent wines, grain, silk, sugar, fine oil, numerous herds of cattle, particularly horses, metals, cinnabar, and a certain species of quicksilver. The heat in summer is very great, but the inhabitants generally deep in the day-time, and travel, and follow their occupations in the night.

The principal cities in this province are Seville, Cadiz, and Gibraltar.

Seville, the capital of Andalusia, stands on the banks of the Guadalquavir, in the midst of a rich and, to the eye, a boundless plain. It is surrounded by a wall of more than a league in circumference, with 126 towns. The ancient name of this city was Hispalis, which name was preserved to it by the Latins. The Goths, from Hispalis, made Hispalia, But the Arabians, who came after them, not pronouncing the p, called it Ixbilla, of which the Castillians have made Seville. Arias Montano derives the name Hispalis, from the Phoenician word Spala, or Spila, which, in that language, signifies plain, or field of verdure. The Romans granted it the privileges of a Roman colony, and called it Julia Romula, or little Rome.

Hercules is said to have been the founder of Seville; and the opinion is so general, that it is current among the people, by long tradition; it is even inscribed on the gates of the city.

There still remain in Seville several statues of Hercules and Caesar, besides that supported by two antique columns at the Alameda. Of the 43 Hercules, mentioned in history or fable, two came into Spain; one was a Lybian, the other from Thebes. The latter came to Cadiz with the Argonauts, and went thence to Gibraltar, where he founded a city, which he called Heraclea. This Hercules came about 1000 years after the other, so famous for his 12 labours, his strength, and his courage. It remains to be known which of the two founded Seville.

Under the Roman government this city was embellished with many magnificent buildings, the very ruins of which have long since disappeared. The Gothic kings made this city their residence, before they removed their court to Toledo. In the general confusion ensuing upon the downfal of the kingdom of Cordova, in 1027, Seville became an independent sovereignty.

Ferdinand, the third King of Castille, after a year's reign, forced Seville to open its gates to him, and acknowledge his sway. Three hundred thousand Moors are said to have left the city upon the capitulation, and to have carried their arms and industry to such countries as were obedient to the law of Mahomet. It is difficult to conceive how Seville could continue to be a great and populous city after such an emigration; yet we find it in a few years enlarged, adorned with new buildings, the chief of which was the cathedral, and long enjoying the rank of one of the most considerable cities in Spain.

Its most brilliant epocha, was soon after the discovery of America, when all the treasures from that quarter of the globe were poured into Europe, and Seville made the magazine of its valuable productions. The Sovereign frequently honoured this city with his presence; merchants from all parts flocked hither to open houses of commerce, or to provide themselves with goods for foreign markets; the sailors and adventurers of the Indian fleets rendezvoused here, and with wanton prodigality lavished the wealth which they had acquired in America. Then, indeed, was the time when the Spaniard cried out in the fulness of his heart. He that has not seen Seville, has not seen the wonder of the World. Its court was then the most splendid in Europe; its streets were thronged with an immense concourse of people; its river was crowded with ships, and its keys covered with bales of precious merchandize. Great were the buildings begun, and still greater the projects for future ones. Its prosperity seemed proof against the fickleness of fortune, when the danger and embarrassments in the navigation of the Guadalquiver, occasioned it to fall from the highest pitch of grandeur, to solitude and poverty. From the superior excellence of the Port of Cadiz, the Galeons were ordered to be stationed there in future.

The shape of Seville is circular, without any great rising in its whole extent. The walls seem of Moorish construction, or of the ages following the dissolution of the Saracenic empire. The ditch in many places is filled up. The circuit of the walls is not more than six miles. The suburb of Triana, on the west side of the river, is as large as many towns, but remarkable for nothing but its gloomy gothic castle, where, in 1481, the inquisition formed its first establishment in Spain.

Seville, (says Twiss) is the largest city in the kingdom of Spain, and is situated in the middle of a plain, as level as any part of Holland. The river Guadalquiver divides it into two unequal parts; that on the south side is called Triana: these parts are joined together by a mean and shabby bridge, consisting of planks laid on ten boats, forming the segment of a circle, according as the tide runs.

There were at the time I was there, (says the above writer) 14 Dutch vessels lying near the bridge, waiting for their cargoes of wool, which is a very dangerous commodity; for if proper care be not taken to air it frequently, by opening the hatches of the vessel, it takes fire; a Dutch vessel was by this means burnt down to the water's edge, a short time before my arrival: this happened in the river, so that the crew saved their lives; but if such an accident should happen at sea, the consequence is evident. This river is neither broad nor rapid, but very deep.

The streets are narrow, and some of them so contracted, that both walls may be touched at the same time. Few are wide enough for carriages; and many through which coaches pass, shew, by the deep furrows in the walls, that one have touched, and often both at the same time.

This city is said to contain 80,000 inhabitants, and is divided into 30 parishes. It has 84 convents, with 24 hospitals.

Of the public edifices, the cathedral is the first to demand attention; it is a building of singular magnificence, but chiefly admired for its tower, the work of Guever, a Moor. It was originally built only 250 feet high, but was afterwards raised 100 more, and is therefore at present 350 feet. It has no steps, nor are they required; because the inclined plain is so easy of ascent, that a horse might trot from the bottom to the top; and at the same time it is so broad, that two horsemen might ride abreast. On the top of this tower is the Giralda, or large brazen image, 14 feet height, which, with its palm-branch, weighs near one ton and a half, yet turns with the slightest variation of the wind. The effect of this tower rising above every edifice in Seville, is extremely noble.

The Moors erected this tower about the year 1000. Tradition relates, that to form a solid foundation for it, the Moors made a deep hole, into which they cast all the marble and stone monuments of the Romans that could be found. When repairs have been necessary, and the ground has been opened near the bottom, many broken ornaments and inscriptions have been discovered. For some purpose, unknown to posterity, the architect has made the solid masonry in the upper half, just as thick again as that in the lower, though on the outside it is all the way of the same dimensions.

The dimensions of the cathedral are 420 feet, by 263, and the height is 126. It was built A. D. 1401. This cathedral receives light by fourscore windows, with painted glass, the work of Arnao, of Flanders, each of which cost 1000 ducats.

The treasures of this church are inestimable; one altar is wholly silver, with all its ornaments, as are the images, large as life, of S. Isidore, and S. Leander, and a tabernacle for the host, more than 12 feet high, adorned with 48 columns; yet the value of these is trifling, when compared with the gold and precious stones deposited by the piety of Catholics, during the period in which all the wealth of the newly discovered world flowed into this city. The profusion of gold, silver, and gems, would be more striking, were not the attention occupied and lost in admiration of innumerable pictures which were the works of those Spanish masters, who flourished immediately after the arrival of the art in Seville.

To the cathedral belongs a library of 20,000 volumes, collected by Hernando, son to Christopher Colon, the first discoverer of America.

The new organ in this church, contains 5300 pipes, with 110 stops, which are said to be 50 more than in the famous one of Harlaem; yet so capacious are the bellows, that when filled, they supply the organ 15 minutes. The mode of filling them with air is singular; a man walks backwards and forwards along an inclined plain of about 15 feet in length, which is ballanced in the middle on its axis. Passing ten times along the inclined plain, fills the bellows.

In the cathedral are 82 altars, at which are said daily 500 masses. The annual consumption is 1500 arrobas of wine, 800 of oil, and 1000 of wax. The archbishop has a revenue of nearly £33,000 a year. There are besides eleven dignitaries, who, on high festivals, wear the mitre, amply provided for.

Many of the convents are remarkable for the beauty of their architecture; but in Seville, the eye covets only pictures, and amidst the profusion of these, it overlooks works, which in other situations, would rivet the attention, and every where fixes on the pencil of Murillo. His most famous performances are in the hospital de la Caridad, and, suited to the institution, express some act of charity. The church of the Capuchins is also richly furnished with his works. Eleven of his pictures are to be seen in a chapel, called De la vera Cruz, belonging to the Franciscans. But the most masterly of all his works, (says Townsend) is in the refectory of an hospital, designed for the reception of superannuated priests. It represents an angel holding a basket to the infant Jesus, who, standing on his mother's lap, takes bread from it to feed three venerable priests. No representation ever approached nearer to real life, nor is it possible to see more expression than glows upon that canvass. This great painter was born in the year 1618, and died in 1682. His name stands high in Europe, but to form an adequate idea of his excellence, every convent should be visited, where he deposited the monuments of his superior skill. In exactness of imitation, he has been equalled; in the clair obscur, and in reflected lights, he was surpassed by Velasquez; but not one of all the Spanish artists have gone beyond him in tenderness and softness.

Murillo, Valasquez, and De Valdes, three of the best Spanish painters, were all born in or near Seville; no wonder, therefore, that so many of their paintings are to be found in this royal city.

The Alcazar, or palace of the Moorish kings, is an irregular building, but commodious and pleasantly situated, comprising many large and well proportioned rooms. The modern part of this palace, has the celebrated motto of Charles V, Plus ultra, inserted in every room, together with the Imperial Eagle. Charles was fond and vain of this motto.

The garden is singular, and having obtained its pristine form, is meant to serve as a model of the Moorish taste. It is laid out in alleys, with clipped myrtle hedges, and in the middle of the parterres are single trees, cut into the form of warriors, with spiked clubs. The whole of this pleasure garden, with the palace and the court-yard, is surrounded by a strong rampart, communicating with, but much higher than, the city wall; and beyond this is an orange grove of considerable extent. For the winter, and for the spring, there cannot be a more delightful residence.

Of the convents, that which is upon the most extensive scale, belongs to the Franciscans. It contains 15 cloisters, many of which are elegant and spacious, with apartments for 200 monks. Their annual expenditure is about £4000.

The university was founded in the year 1502, and soon rose into consideration. The name of Arias Montanus, who lies buried at the convent of S. Jago, is alone sufficient to give celebrity to this seminary. His translation of the holy scriptures, will be valued by the learned, as long as the scriptures themselves shall be the object of veneration to mankind. The number of under graduates here, is about 500.

The Spaniards look upon this city and its environs, as a perfect paradise, especially in fine evenings, which they are seldom without, when all the people of fashion repair to the neighbouring fields in their coaches, to breathe the fragrant air, perfumed with a variety of sweet flowers and blossoms, that nature produces in almost every season. The olives are the best in Europe, and are here in prodigious quantities: there is a grove of them, not far from the city, twenty miles in circumference.

The Almeida, or Mall, is about three furlongs in length, divided into four shady walks, by five rows of trees; it is, besides, embellished with fountains and seats, and small canals of water running along the border of each row of trees. This Mall is further remarkable for having two very high columns of granite, taken from a temple of Hercules, which existed here in times of very remote antiquity; on the top of one is placed a statue of Hercules, and on the other that of Julius Caesar. At the other end are two modern columns, with a lion on the top of each.

Between the hours of six and eight in the evening the Spanish ladies resort hither in their carriages; and, from ten to midnight, they return again to walk, especially on Sundays, attended by their corlejos.

The royal tobacco manufacture is situated just without the walls, it was built in 1757, wholly of white stone. The building is a square of 240 feet, and of two stories in height: the chief front has 29 windows, and the others nearly the same number. Fifteen hundred men are constantly employed in this manufacture of sugars and snuff, and 190 horses alternately turn 80 mills for the same purpose. The whole fabric cost nearly half a million sterling. The net revenue amounts to one million sterling, it being the only manufacture in the kingdom.

There is but one door by which it can be entered, to prevent labourers from smuggling the tobacco, which some of them, nevertheless, found means to do by a very uncommon method, which was discovered by their being obliged to be cured of the inflammation happening to the part where they had concealed it. The first three or four days of their coming to work, the volatile parts of the tobacco and snuff affect them so much as to cause them to stagger and reel as if they were intoxicated.

The leaves of the tobacco are imported from Cuba and the Brazils; the best snuff is called Grance. Eight shillings a pound is the current price of the snuff in Seville. It is made by grinding and mixing the tobacco with the red earth of Almazarron,
SIR WALTER RALEIGH

a kind of ochre. The excessive adulteration of this earth, practised of late years by the Directors, has occasioned a great falling off in the exportation of this commodity; and, unless they alter their method, the trade will soon be confined to Spain and its dominions.

The universal use of snuff and tobacco in almost all countries, and the vast sums of money gained by its commerce and manufactures, is wonderful, when we consider how few years have elapsed since its first introduction, compared with other articles of commerce. Sir Walter Raliegh was the first person, we are told, that smoaked it, and this while he was in America; and it is related, whilst he was lighting his pipe, having sent out his black servant for something to drink, the poor fellow on his return finding the smoke issue from his master's mouth in volumes, conceived him to be on fire, and instantly threw the contents of the pot in his face, in order to extinguish it.

The silk manufacture was formerly considerable at Seville. When Ferdinand III. in the year 1248, entered the city, he found, as it is said, 16,000 looms, which employed 130,000 persons; and such was the population of the city, that the Moors who left it, when it was surrendered to the Christians, were 400,000, besides multitudes who died during a 16 months' siege, and many who remained after their fellow-citizens were gone. On the first discovery of America they once more reckoned 16,000 looms, but some heavy taxes imposed by Philip II. during the latter end of his reign, and the subsequent expulsion of the Moors, gave a shock to commerce it has not yet recovered.

In the vicinity of Seville is a curious monument of antiquity, the amphitheatre of Italica. It is an oval of 291 feet by 204. Italica is the city where Trajan, Adrian, and Theodosius the Great are supposed to have been born. Of the ancient colony of Italica, supposed to have been composed by Scipio, of his veteran soldiers, scarce any vestiges remain. It is said, the Moors destroyed it, not to have a rival so near Seville. The amphitheatre is now more like Stonehenge than a regular Roman edifice.

About four leagues from this city is a small tower, called La Torre de Quatro Abitas, which may be shaken by a person who ascends it, to such a degree as to spill liquids out of a glass; and Twiss, from whom this extract is made, farther says, he has been assured, that all along the coasts of Spain are watch-towers, from mile to mile, with lights and guards at night, so that from Cadiz to Barcelona, and from Bilboa to Ferrol, the whole kingdom may, by these means, be successively alarmed in case of an invasion.

The country round the city, to a considerable distance, lies so low that it is frequently overflowed; and upon some occasions the water has been eight feet high even in their habitations. The soil is rich, and being at the same time very deep, its fertility is astonishing. The produce is corn, leguminous plants, hemp, flax, lemons, oranges, and liquorice. The quantity of liquorice exported annually from Spain, is said to amount nearly to 200 tons, a considerable part of which is purchased by the porter-brewers in London. The importation of this produce from Spain has increased very rapidly within these few years. From being only three tons in the year 1785, it became 60 tons in the year 1788, into the port of London only, and 183 tons including the outports. From which circumstance we may collect, that London has taught the country brewers the use of this innocent drug in making porter.

In consequence of vapours and miasmata from standing waters, and frequent floods, the inhabitants of Seville and its neighourhood are subject to tertian and putrid fevers, and to hysterical disorders. These disorders may likewise be occasioned by the quantity of melons and cucumbers consumed by them all the year, in consequence of which they are likewise infested with worms, accompanied with epilepsies. There are other diseases, which originate in heat. Whenever they have the Solano wind, that is, whenever the wind blows from Africa, they become liable to pleurisies; but what is chiefly complained of by the physicians and magistrates is, an irritability of nerves, influencing the morals in a variety of ways.

A. D. 1731, the consumption of flesh in Seville was 1,792,271 lbs. of which the ecclesiastics had 8,11,091 lbs. free from taxes.

Cadiz, or, as the English generally pronounce is Cales, was not less famous in antiquity, than when it became the staple of general commerce from Spain to the Indies.

The Phoenicians had no sooner landed in Spain than they founded a city, which they named Gadez (or enclosure) upon that tongue of land which the Greeks believed to be the western extremity of the world.

This place became very powerful under the empire of the Romans. They embellished it with several temples; and, if the ancients may be believed, the ceremonies and dogmas of religion had there a more sublime meaning than in the rest of the world. Altars were dedicated to the year, the month, to commerce, and, what is still more surprizing, Gadez contained the statue and temple of Poverty. The temple of Hercules, built by the Phoenicians, in this city, was the most famous; it was here he vanquished the triple Geryon. The great antiquity of the temple gave rise to fabulous tales. Among the numerous columns with which it was decorated, were two of brass, upon which unknown characters were engraved. According to the Roman historians it was near this place Julius Caesar found the statue of Alexander, which inspired his ambition with such bitter complaints. No sacrifice of animals was made in this temple: nothing but incense was burned within the walls; and, by an institution not remarkable for politeness, and difficult to be explained, women and swine were forbidden to enter it. The priest who offered up the sacrifice was to be chaste, to have his head shaved, his feet bare, and his robe tucked up. Some authors pretend that there was no statue in the temple, not even that of the divinity to which it was dedicated. By Hercules the Phoenicians meant to indicate the almighty power of the Supreme Being.

It is recorded by some old French writers that, during the time of the Romans, 'their great riches had introduced such luxury, that the girls of Gades, were sought after in all public rejoicings, as well for their skill in playing on different instruments of music, que pour leur humeur, qui avoit quelque chose de plus que de l'enjouement.'

The small peninsula on which Cadiz is situated embraces a very considerable extent of the sea; and, with its two extreme points, called Los Puntales, forms a noble bay, the work of nature, which is about three leagues long, and two broad. Its entrance is in breadth a short league. The two points appear contrived expressly to defend the bay.

Cadiz occupies the whole surface of the western extremity of the isle of Leon. This island bears resemblance to a pear with a long stalk; and is in length, from the south-east to the north-west, about six leagues. The north-west end, where the town stands, is scarcely half a league in breadth. At the south-east end of the ancient bridge of Suaco, thrown over a deep channel or river, affords a communication between the island and the continent.

The island, with the continent opposite to it, forms a bay four leagues in lenght, and in most places two in breadth, except about the centre of the bay, where are two points of land which approach so near as to command the passage. One of these points is on the island and the other on the continent. Within these points of land is the harbour. Two forts are erected on them, Fort Puntal and Fort Matagorda, which must be taken before an enemy can enter the harbour; these two forts are well fortified, and render the harbour perfectly secure. During the time of the ebb a great part of the harbour is dry.

The bay is so spacious, that there are moorings for the different vessels, according to their various destinations.

Cadiz is surrounded with walls, which contribute more to its embellishment than to its defence.

Cadiz contains several regular squares, the streets are broad, straight, and at present almost all paved with a large white and smooth stone, in which care has been taken to cut it in such a manner as to prevent the horses and mules from slipping.

The swarms of rats that run about the streets in the night are incredible; whole droves of them pass and repass continually, which makes walking late in the streets extremely troublesome.

The houses are very high, with each a vestibule, which being left open till night, serves passengers to retire to: this custom, which prevails throughout Spain, renders these places exceedingly offensive. In the middle of the house is a court like a deep well, under which is generally a cistern, the breeding place of gnats and mosquitos; the ground-floors are warehouses, the first stories compting houses or kitchens, and the principal apartments up two pair of stairs. The roofs are flat, covered with an impenetrable cement, and few are without a mirador or turret, for the purpose of commanding a view of the sea. Round the parapet wall are placed rows of square pillars, intended either for ornament, agreeable to some traditional mode of decoration, or to fix awnings to; that such as sit there for the benefit of the sea breeze may be sheltered from the rays of the sun: but the most common use made of them, is to fasten ropes for drying linen upon. High above all these pinnacles, which gives Cadiz a most singular appearance, stands the tower of signals: here flags are hung out on the first sight of a sail, marking the size of the ship, the nation it belongs to, and, if a Spanish Indiaman, the port of the Indies it come from.

The public walk or alameda is pleasant in the evening: it is customary to walk here till midnight. Among the rest, says Twiss, I observed several ladies who had fixed glow-worms by threads to their hair, which had a luminous and pleasing effect. The alameda is planted with double rows of white elms; seats of stone are fixed on each sides: it is parted from the coach-road by iron rails, and commands a fine view of the ocean. This walk is as much resorted to by ladies of easy virtue as our St. James's park, and is the only place in Spain where such bare-faced licentiousness and libertinism is to be seen.

At the extremity of this walk, westward, is a large esplanade, the only airing place in this city: it turns round most of the west and south sides of the island, but the buildings are straggling and ugly.

They reckon now in Cadiz not more than 70,000 inhabitants; but, about ten years since, it is said to have contained near 90,000, besides 20,000 that entered daily from the sea and the adjacent country.

The most distinguished buildings are the two cathedrals, the one ancient, the other not yet finished. The former is chiefly worthy of notice for some good pictures and its treasures, consisting of gems, silver candlesticks and lamps, both numerous and bulky; and three custodias or tabernacles, one of which constructed of the finest silver, and weighs more than half a ton; another is mostly of solid gold.

The new cathedral is an immense pile, with large and lofty domes, and many pillars well proportioned; yet the whole appears heavy and disgusting. This is attributed to its being loaded with a very projecting cornice, which in a rotunda of large dimensions would not be void of elegance, but is by no means suitable to an edifice abounding with angles. All who view this building are struck with the absurdity of this preposterous ornament. It is not impossible, however, that the waves may soon wipe away this disgrace to taste, as they have already begun their devastations on that side, and not more than ten feet are interposed between the building and the sea.

In the convents are some good pictures, more particularly in the cloister of the Augustine friars; and in that of the Capuchins, are some most worthy of attention, by Murillo.

Of the three hospitals, two are remarkable for their neatness; the third deserves most commendation for its general utility. It is called the Royal or Military Hospital, because designed for soldiers; it has fourscore students maintained and educated at the King's expence. One of the two distinguished for neatness is set apart for women; the other, designed for men, is elegant. All the wards are paved with marble, in checkers of black and white; and, instead of white walls, wainscoting, or stucco, the sides are covered with Dutch tiles.

In this hospital are generally about 6000 patients, and out of these they annually lose one tenth.

There is also a retreat for widows, founded by a Turkey merchant, settled at Cadiz, who died A. D. 1756, aged 104. In this hospital 47 widows have each two good rooms, with a weekly allowance of six reals. But the most interesting establishment in Cadiz, and the best conducted of the kind in Spain, is the hospicio, or general house of industry. In it are received the poor of every nation unable to maintain themselves; and in the first place, orphans, deserted children, and the aged, who are passed the capability of labour, the blind, the lame, idiots, and mad people, but especially priests when aged and reduced to poverty. Even strangers passing through the city, with permission of the governor, may be entertained here for two days.

Neatness universally prevails, and all who are here received are clean, well cloathed, and have plenty of the best provisions. The young people are taught to read, to write, to cast accounts; and such as manifest abilities, are not only instructed in the principles of geometry, but, if they are so inclined, are taught to draw. The boys are trained to weaving, and to various crafts; the girls spin wool, flax and cotton; they knit, make lace, or are employed in plain work.

To encourage industry an account is kept of what every individual earns, out of which he is made debtor to the house for about three reals a day, and the overplus given to him, when he can make it appear he is able to establish himself without their future aid. I examined the accounts of many, says Townsend, who cleared for themselves more than half a crown a week, and were looking out for settlements, that they might marry, and gather the fruits of their industry.

Adjoining to the house is a spacious shop, for the accommodation of all who are willing to work, wherein are provided proper implements and raw materials, and the moment any one has completed his work, he receives the price of his labour without any deduction; being at liberty not only to lodge where he pleases, but to spend his gains according to his own fancy.

But because many, who would work, are indispensibly confined at home, where from poverty they are unable to procure either wheels or wool, the governors provide both, and pay them without any deduction for their work. Townsend instances three children employed by them, the eldest nine years of age, who by spinning gained six reals, that is more than 14 pence a day, and maintained a paralytic father.

Not satisfied with these exertions they have established schools, in the distant quarters of the city, and, providing masters in every branch of business, freely admit all who are desirous of being taught.

The management is vested in 12 directors, who are presided over by the governor of the city, for the time being, with power to fill up of themselves any vacancy which may happen in their body.

The source of their revenue are from voluntary contributions, legacies, a tax on all wheat brought into the city, and from the produce of labour in the house.

The agreeable and amiable qualities of the fair sex renders a residence at Cadiz delightful, the ladies possess to a very uncommon degree the pleasing exterior of the Andalusians, modified by the society of strangers, and by that general desire to please, which the refinements of society and a concourse of admirers maintain in continual activity. Pleasures are not much varied at Cadiz. During some years there was a French comedy. The only theatre at present is the national one, which rivals those of the capital, and sometimes is enriched by their losses. The situation of the city, but of a middling extent for a population of 80,000 inhabitants, and which the sea almost surrounds, renders the pleasures of public walks but very few. At a quarter of a league from the land-gate, sterility again appears, and continues for several leagues round, if a few kitchen-gardens and some orchards, in the vicinity of the isle of Leon, be excepted, where waterings supply the want of moisture in the sandy dryness of the soil. The bull-fights are exhibited in the hottest months of the year; this being one of the few cities in Spain where they have not been banished, and it is not that in which the people are least delighted with them.

They have an Italian Opera, and a French Theatre, upon a very grand scale, supported by the voluntary subscriptions of the French merchants.

The end of the carnival at Cadiz differs very little from the beginning; no public balls or masquerades being allowed; the only marks of the festivity of Shrove-tide, the last day of the carnival, were pail-fulls of water which the women in the balconies poured upon the men in slouched hats and cloaks that passed within their reach. There were, however, many assemblies and balls of a lower class, where the fandango was danced a la ley, that is in all the perfection it is capable of. Among the gipsies there is another dance called the Manguindoy, so lascivious and indecent that it is prohibited under severe penalties; the turns are simple, like that of the fandango, being little more than a return of the same set of notes; this, as well as the fandango, is said to have been imported from the Havannah, being both of negro breed. On the coast of Africa it is likewise said they exhibit a variety of strange dances, pretty similar to these. From whatever country the fandango may have originally come, it is now so thoroughly naturalized in Spain, that every Spaniard may be said to have been born with it in his head and his heels. Towards the close of the great balls, given heretofore in the theatre, when all the company appeared drooping with fatigue, it was a constant trick of the fiddlers to strike up this dance. In an instant every one started up, and the whole house resounded with the uproar of clapping hands, footing, jumping, and snapping of fingers.

This is the most commercial city in Spain, the first marine department, and the centre of all the traffic to America and the West Indies. Cadiz, says the author of the Voyageur Français, in his account of the trade of this city, is the place where the English, French, Dutch, and Italian merchants send their goods to be exported to America in Spanish vessels, which are divided into three classes; the fleet, (flota,) the register ships, and the galleons. The flota consists of three men of war, and 14 or 15 merchant ships, whose burthen is from 400 to 1000 tons. These vessels are laden with the best European productions; silk, stuffs, linen, velvet, ribbonds, laces, glass, paper, hardware, watches, clocks, shoes, stockings, books, prints, pictures, iron utensils, wine, fruit, &c. so that every nation is interested in the lading. Spain hardly contributes any thing but wine, which with the freight, broker, age, and taxes to the King, are all the advantages she derives from this commerce. The fleet sails from Cadiz to La Vera Cruz, the vessels which compose it are not allowed to part company, nor to put in, nor break bulk any where on the voyage. It takes in return gold, silver, jewels, cochineal, indigo, tobacco, sugar, coton, &c.

The register ships are equipped by, and sail for the account of some private merchants of Seville and Cadiz. When they think the Americans are in want of certain goods, they present a petition to the council of the Indies, and desire leave to send each of them a vessel of 300 tons, for which leave they pay a certain sum; and, besides, are obliged to make considerable presents to different officers; and though they only obtain leave to send vessels of 300 tons, they generally send those of at least double that burthen.

The galleon fleet is composed of eight ships of the line, chiefly destined to furnish Peru with warlike stores, but they are also filled with various merchandise for the account of private persons. Twelve other vessels, sail under their convoy. This fleet may only trade on the coasts of the South Sea, and the other is limited to Mexico.

The whole trade of Cadiz engages about 1000 vessels, of which nearly one-tenth are Spanish.

The wines most remarkable in Cadiz, are Sherry and Pacaretti, both from Xeres and its vicinity. The former is sold for 48 pounds a ton, the latter for 56; when they come to England, they pay in the out ports excise and customs, near 30 pounds a ton, but in the port of London near three pounds more.

The people who most abound at Cadiz are, first the Irish, and next the Flemings, Genoese, and Germans. The English and Dutch are not numerous. There are many Frenchmen, but more among the workmen of every kind, and retail dealers, than among the merchants. It appears, however, that the commerce carried on by foreigners in this city, is very much on the decline. This is attributed chiefly to the extension of the commerce of the Spanish Indies, formerly confined to this city, and to several other ports of the kingdom of Spain.

The manufactures of this city are very inconsiderable: that of salt is the most interesting branch of industry. The salt-pits encompass a great part of the bay from Puntal to Port St. Mary. The salt manufactures sell what remains to them after furnishing the King's magazines, more or less dear according to circumstances. The nations who purchase it are Sweden, Denmark, Holland, England, and particularly Portugal. The fishermen from St. Malo, Dieppe, and Granville, sometimes go to the Bay of Cadiz to take in cargoes of salt for Newfoundland; and when the salt-pits in France fail, the French take large quantities of it for home consumption.

Every commercial nation has a consul resident at Cadiz; those of England are the only ones not allowed to have any concern in trade.

The stir in this city is prodigious during the last months of the stay of the flota. The packers possess the art of pressing goods in great perfection; but as the freight is paid according to the cubic palms of each bale, they are apt to squeeze down the cloths and linen so very close and hard, as sometimes to render them unfit for use. The exportation of French luxuries in dress is enormous; Lyons furnishes most of them; England sends out bale good; and the North, linens.

At about four leagues from Cadiz is Chiclana, a handsome village, where the merchants of Cadiz have their country houses. These they have embellished and surrounded with that verdure of which they are deprived in their town residence. The citizens of Cadiz carry thither, and enjoy, for a time, all the luxuries of the capital; dinners, suppers, balls, concerts, all the display of opulence, and every ornament of the toilette; this village is, if we may so express it, a theatre opened by luxury and taste; in which the polite and amiable display their charms, smooth the brows of the calculators who accompany them, and generously bestowing unnumbered pleasures, oblige them to confess that there are things more precious than gold.

GIBRALTAR. This town, which has been in possession of the English since the year 1704, is seated at the foot of the famous mount Calpe, generally known by the name of one of Hercules's pillars, the other being mount Abyle, directly opposite to it on the African coast. Mount Calpe is a high and steep rock, standing by itself and joined to the Spanish continent by means of a low neck of land, about two hundred fathoms broad. The town of Gibraltar is built on a slip of land, which runs out into the Mediterranean sea, and forms a bay called the bay of Gibraltar. The mountain, or rock which defends it on the land side is half a league high, and so steep that there is no ascending it by a body of troops if they met with opposition. Its perpendicular height above the level of the sea, is fourteen hundred feet. Many apes and monkies inhabit its caverns and precipices, and are frequently shot; it is thought that these animals are not produced in any other part of Europe. The birds called solitary sparrows, are also found here.

In blowing up the rock in various places, many pieces of bones, teeth, &c. are daily found incorporated with the stones. On the west side of this mountain, is the cave called S. Michaels, eleven hundred and ten feet above the horizon. It contains many pillars of various sizes, from the thickness of a goose's quill to two feet in diameter, formed by the droppings of water, which have petrified in falling. The water is perpetually dripping from the roof, and forms an infinite number of stalactitae, continually increasing in bulk, which will probably, in process of time, fill the whole cavern. At the end of this cave is a hole, about six feet in diameter, of which the depth is uncertain. The signal house, built on the highest part of the mountain, commands a prospect of the town, the bay, the straits. Mount Abyle, or Ape's hill, on the African shore, the city of Ceuta, and great part of the Barbary coast; the town of S. Roque and Algeziras, and the snowy Alpuxarra mountains. At night an infinitely greater number of stars maybe discovered from hence by the naked eye than from below, because in this elevated situation the atmosphere is much more pure and thin.

Gibraltar is not so considerable for extent or beauty, as for its strength or situation, which renders it the key of Spain. It is accordingly provided with all the artillery, stores, and forces necessary for its defence. Seven regiments generally are in garrison here, and six hundred men are always on guard at a time. The discipline observed here is very strict, and the officers always appear in their regimentals. There are 340 guns mounted on the fortifications, and there is room for 100 more; those of the grand battery are of bronze, and the rest of iron, they are all fired in succession on the king's birth-day; this performance takes up half an hour. At sun-rise, sun-set, and at nine in the evening a gun is daily fired.

In the year 1704, the united fleets of England and Holland, after a cannonading of only a few hours, took it by surrender; and though the Spaniards endeavoured to recover it the following year, by a formal siege, and afterwards by a blockade, they miscarried in both; and at the Treaty of Utrecht the English were confirmed in the possession of it. In the year 1727 the Spaniards again attempted Gibraltar, but with no better success than before. A fresh attempt was likewise made on the side of the town during the late war, by the means of floating batteries, which likewise failed. This last attempt would have proved successful, had it not been for the stratagem of firing red hot balls on them from the garrison, which set fire to the greatest part of the new invented batteries, and dispersed the rest.

The Spanish lines are a fortification, running across the isthmus which separates Gibraltar from the continent. A regiment of infantry, several batteries, and a fort at each end, defend this
VIEW of GIBRALTAR

barrier of the Spanish monarchy. It is about half an hour's ride from the land-gate of the English garrison.

This most extraordinary fortress and mountain has been so often described by particular histories, prints, and drawings, that we have given a view of it.

The views published by Major Macé are exact, and convey a very good idea of the four different faces of the mountain. Since the time of their publication General Boyd has completed the roads up the hill in every necessary direction: a carriage may now go up to the signal-house, which before seemed a place where none but goats could climb up.

The strait to which this town gives name is about eight leagues in length and five in breadth. There is a strong current setting into this strait from the Atlantic, which will carry a vessel ten miles an hour, and requires a very strong gale to stem it.

The town consists chiefly of one street, which is tolerably broad and well paved; the other streets are crooked, narrow, and dirty: it contains an English church, a Roman Catholic one for the Spaniards and Portuguese, who inhabit this town, to the number of 300, and are mostly shopkeepers, and for about 700 Genoese, chiefly mariners; and a synagogue for the Jews, who amount nearly to the number of 600. The number of the English may be about 2000, exclusive of the military: besides these, there are a few hundred Moors, who continually pass and repass to and from the Barbary coast, trafficking in cattle, fowls, fish, fruits, and other provisions, as nothing is to be had from Spain, which neither Jews nor Moors are ever suffered to enter.

There is a small theatre here, where the performances are well got up; the actors are military gentlemen, and the actresses such by profession.

All European coin are current here, but considerably under the value; a guinea passing for no more than 19 shillings and sixpence, and five Spanish reals for not more than three.

No person is allowed to go out of the English territory, either by land or sea, without a pass from the Governor, who grants the inhabitants one annually. No vessels, nor even boats, are suffered to land their people in any of the Spanish posts, till after they have performed a quarantine of three or four days. Here are taverns, coffee-houses, billiard-tables, shops, &c. as in England. The Governor's garden is open to the public, and much resorted to on Sunday evenings.

The province of Andalusia, watered throughout its whole extent by the Guadalquivir, if properly cultivated, would produce corn sufficient not only for its own consumption but for exportation. Yet the wheat annually imported is little less than one million and an half of fanegas; the fanega being generally one cwt. but at Cadiz something less. Nearly one half of this quantity, in the year 1787, came from Africa, and the remainder, except about 85,000 fanegas, imported from America, was furnished by Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia. In Cadiz, to prevent a scarcity of corn, and to make a profit by the sale of it, the city has established a public granary, from which the bakers are supplied at a given price, and according to that the magistrates regulate the assize of bread.

The country between Cadiz and Algesiras, which lies on the bay of Gibraltar, is one of the most desert of those not quite uncultivated. "For ten leagues (says Bourgoanne) I crossed the duchy of Medina-Sidonia, which, in this district, consisted of corn-fields and pastures. In no part of them was the vestige of a human habitation. The great proprietor seems to reign there like the lion in the forests, by driving away with his roarings, those who otherwise might approach him. Instead of men and women I met with seven or eight great herds of horned cattle and some troops of mares. On seeing them free from the yoke and bridle, wandering over an immense region, unbounded to the eye by barrier or enclosure, we were ready to imagine ourselves in the first ages of the world, when animals in a state of independence divided with man the dominion of the earth, found every where their own property, and were not that of any person. This province has been divided into great possessions as far back as the conquest of it by the Moors. The principal Castillian noblemen who then accompanied the conquering kings obtained enormous grants in perpetuity, according to the fatal custom introduced into almost the whole of the monarchy. The extinction of males in the great families encreased the inconvenience. Rich heiresses carry with them their opulent portions into families not less opulent, so that this absurd succession is become, if we may so express it, a vast tontine, which will sooner or later make the greatest part of Spain the inheritance of a few families, who shall survive the rest."

The peasantry in this province seem very poor and frugal in their diet; bread, steeped in oil, and occasionally seasoned with vinegar, is the common
Chart of the STRAITS of GIBRALTAR.

food of the country people; a bunch of grapes or a slice of melon serves as a dessert.

"The Andalusian (says Peyron) may be compared to the Gascon for extravagant expressions, vivacity, and vain boasting: he is easily distinguished among a crowd of Spaniards. Hyperbole is his favourite language; he embellishes and exaggerates every thing, and offers you his purse and his services in as little time as he takes to repent of having so done. He is a bully, an idler, lively, jovial, attached to the ancient customs of his country; nimble, well-made, extremely fond of women, and loves dancing, pleasure, and good cheer."

CHAP. XX. Constitution and Government.

HAVING now gone through the different provinces and cities, and given an account of their ancient and present state, their manners, customs, trade, manufactures, and other local circumstances, we shall proceed to treat of the kingdom in general, as to its constitution, government, laws, revenues, forces, literature, religion, &c.

First, as to its constitution. Spain, from Gothic times to that of Pelagius was an elective kingdom; and, for two centuries after him, the throne was filled by the suffrages of the states, who departed, however, in no instance from the royal family; but from Ramir I. to Alphonso V. all the concern the states had in the creation of a new king was to acknowledge him as a lawful and worthy successor; and since the latter, there appears not the least trace of an election, the crown always, of course, without any form or ceremony, devolving to the nearest in blood. The kings of Spain have sometimes limited the succession to certain families, ranks, and persons; of which the first instance was Philip III. in the year 1619; and the second, Philip V. in 1713. Females here are also capable of inheriting the crown, on failure of the male line. In case of a total extinction of the royal family, it is an uncontroverted persuasion, that the right of electing a king would revert to the people. If the next heir be incapable of government, and especially if, on the decease of the king, affairs are in confusion, the states are empowered to chuse five persons to take the administration upon them, among whom the queen-mother is to hold the chief place.

The King's title at large runs thus: Ferdinand, by the Grace of God, King of Castille, Leon, Arragon, the two Sicilies, Jerusalem, Navarre, Granada, Toledo, Valencia, Gallicia, Majorca, Seville, Cerdena, Cordova, Corsica, Murcia, Jaen, the Algarves of Algesiras, Gibraltar, the Canary Islands, the East and West Indies, the Islands and Continent of the Ocean, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant, and Milan, of Habsburg, Flanders, Tirol, and Barcelona, Lord of Biscay, and Molina, &c. The short title is Rey Catholico de Espanna. This title of Catholic King, though before assumed by some kings of Spain, and other sovereigns, was, in 1500, solemnly conferred on Ferdinand V. by Pope Alexander VI. Since the year 1308, the Hereditary Prince is styled Prince of the Asturias, but becomes so always by creation. The other royal children are called Infantes.

The King's power is unlimited, and the states of the kingdom consist of the clergy, the ancient nobility, and the deputies of the towns. Since the beginning of the 17th century, or the time of Philip III. the Cortes or Dyets have been discontinued, no other assembly than conventions of the deputies, or agents of the towns, having been thought necessary; in which are settled the necessary taxes and imposts, without any infringements on the privileges of the ecclesiastics and nobility, whom unquestionably the King summoned to those assemblies when the public good required it.

The history of Spain, says Bourgoanne, sufficiently proves how great an influence the Cortes had formerly in the most important affairs of government. These for a long time have not been assembled, except for the sake of form. And the sovereigns without violence, or formally rejecting their intervention, have found means to elude their authority. They promulgate from the throne ordinances, under the name of Pragmatiques, the preambles of which gives us to understand, that they claim the same authority as if they had been published in the assembly of the Cortes; which are never convoked except at the accession of a new sovereign to the throne, to administer to him an oath in the name of the nation, and to swear to him fidelity.

On this occasion letters of convocation are sent to all the grandees, to all persons bearing titles of Castille, (an honorary distinction,) to all the prelates, and to every city which has a right to send deputies to the Cortes. The first two classes represent the nobility, the bishops sit in the name of the clergy, and the cities, which depute one of their magistrates, represent the people. Except on these occasions, the Cortes of the whole kingdom have not been assembled, since Philip V. convoked them to give their approbation to the Pragmatic Sanction, for changing the order of succession to the throne.

They are still consulted for form's sake, in certain cases; but then the members of which they are composed, correspond with each other, without assembling. A faint image of them, however, remains in an assembly, which constantly resides at Madrid, under the name of Diputados de los Reynos, or Deputies of the Kingdom.

At their breaking up, when convoked by Philip V. it was agreed that they should be represented by a permanent committee, whose business it should be to watch over the administration of that part of the taxes, known by the name of Millones, and which had been granted under Philip VI. with the formal consent of the Cortes, upon certain conditions, which that monarch swore to observe. They retained the administration of these imposts till the year 1718, when Cardinal Alberoni, whose ardent and impetuous genius was irritated at such shackles, transferred the administration of it into the hands of the Sovereign. From that time the assembly of deputies of the kingdom have held no more of the state revenues, than the small portion necessary to pay the salaries, and defray the expences of the members. These deputies are only eight in number, and are chosen according to the ancient division of the provinces of the crown of Castille, and those of the crown of Arragon.

These two parts of the monarchy differ from each other, with respect to the administration, form, and collection of taxes; a distinction which had its origin at the time when Castille and Arragon were united by the marriage of Isabella and Ferdinand, the Catholic, and which since that time has undergone but few alterations. All the provinces of Castille unite to name six; Catalonia and Majorca, one; and the regencies of Valencia and Arragon elect the eighth. These deputies sit six years, at the expiration of which a new election takes place. As a relict of their ancient rights, they still retain the privilege of being, by virtue of their places, members of the council of finance, by which the sovereign communicates to the nation the necessity of levying any new tax; and the approbation they are supposed to give to the royal resolution, is a shadow of the consent of the Cortes, without which taxes could not formerly be either levied or augmented. The provinces of Biscay and Navarre, which have assemblies, and particular privileges, send also on some occasions, deputies to the throne, but they do not make a part of the body of deputies of the kingdom, and their constituents fix, at pleasure, the object and duration of their temporary mission.

From this sketch of the present constitution, we may perceive how little the Sovereign authority is limited in Spain. How feeble must that rampart of liberty be, which is only formed of a small number of citizens, possessed but of little real power, under the controul of government, from whom they expect favours and preferments, and who, after all, represent only the people, the most numerous, but the least respected part of the nation! The will of the monarch is also carried into execution by several other permament bodies, under the name of councils, who are the interpreters and keepers of the law. But before we treat of these it will be proper to say something concerning the ministers who are constantly near the person of the Monarch, and with whom alone he at present shares the weight of royalty. Their authority was formerly counter-balanced by the council of state, which still subsists, and forms the most distinguished body in the monarchy; but which, since the administration of Cardinal Alberoni, has not been permitted to assemble, and exercise its functions. The place of counsellor of state is, therefore, now, only honorary, with a considerable salary annexed to it, and furnishes the Sovereign with the means of rewarding those of his subjects who have deserved well of the state, in the most distinguished employments. The want of this assembly of the counsellors of state, is now supplied by the Sovereign's uniting the ministers of the six principal departments into a committee.

For the administration of the kingdom is divided into six grand departments. The minister of foreign affairs is, in many respects, the directing minister, and receives, as a mark of distinction, the title of Secretary of State. The minister of war has but a very circumscribed authority. He is president of the council of war, which is rather a tribunal than a board of administration. The inspectors of the different regiments, draw up a statement of whatever relates to the corps of which they have the direction, and the minister at war has only to present the memorials they give in to the king.

The marine minister has no associates. The chiefs of the three departments, and the inspectors of the marine, are named by the King, on the representation of the minister; the marine ordinances prepared by him, require only the sanction of the sovereign.

The minister of finances who should properly be under the inspection of the superintendant-general of that department, were some time since united, and will probably be so continued. This minister is besides, president of the council of finance.

The minister of the Indies has the most extensive department in all the monarchy, for in him is centered the civil, military, ecclesiastical, and financial government of Spanish America; and it may be said, that in the whole political world there is no minister whose department comprehends so many different objects. Had Augustus committed to one single minister the government of the whole Roman Empire, his power would only have extended to a small part of modern Europe, the coasts of Africa, and some provinces of Asia; for the Roman Empire, at the time it was most extensive, was not to be compared to that immense country, which from the north of California, stretches to the straits of Magellan, and forms the dominions of the Spanish monarch in America, and the department of the minister of the Indies.

The minister of Favour and Justice, has his department in the judiciary and ecclesiastical affairs; but his authority is controuled by the great chamber of the council of Castille, of which we shall treat hereafter; and with respect to the nomination to benefices, by the intervention of the King's confessor. The latter, however, depends upon the will of the monarch, and the confidence with which he honours the director of his conscience.

These six offices are usually filled by six different persons; but, until the year 1776, the same minister held those of the marine and Indies, which are so connected that the good of the nation will perhaps require them to be again united.

The stability of ministers is one of the most remarkable peculiarities of the court of Spain. The monarch who, in disposing of these eminent places, consults public opinion, has hitherto had the singular happiness of his approbation never having been dishonoured by the event. For which reason his ministers, without abandoning themselves to indolence, ardently labour to justify his confidence, and lose not that time, which is to them so precious, in watching the latent springs of court intrigues, in order to disconcert their secret machinations. They have the courage to form vast projects, knowing that they are certain to find a constant support in the benevolence of the monarch. There is nothing to divert them from an attention to the duties of their office. Pleasures do not abound at the Spanish court; there are no theatrical representations of any kind; the amusement of the Sovereign and the princes is confined to the chace. This, though a great inconvenience to the idlers about the court, is of unspeakable advantage to public affairs. Ministers may there dedicate the whole of their time to business and audiences. The simple and regular life that they lead is greatly to be admired: walking is almost the only amusement they permit themselves. Their principal society consists of their clerks, who habitually eat at their tables. This reciprocal constraint has some inconveniences, but there results from it a greater union between the heads and the subalterns in office, and more unanimity in the conduct of affairs. Those who dispatch them under the eye of the minister, are not, in fact, merely clerks; they may rather be compared to the principles of our offices. To be appointed to these places, it is necessary to have given proofs of talents in some confidential employments. There are no doubt abuses in the public offices of the court of Spain, as well as in all others; but in general, corruption is very rare, and persons in office are polite and obliging. With respect to the ministers themselves, nothing less than the esteem of the nation, and the love of public good, can make them amends for so entirely renouncing the greater part of the pleasures of life.

The supreme royal council of Castille, holds the first rank among the councils and tribunals of the kingdom: it is at once a council of administration, which has the inspection of all the interior operations of govonment, and a sovereign tribunal, that has exclusive cognizances of certain causes, and in certain cases receives appeals from the other tribunals. The oldest members of this council, form what is called, in Spain, the Camara, which is properly the privy council of the monarch; and, at the same time, a sovereign tribunal for certain causes, such as all which relate to the right of patronage; the succession of persons of the royal family; and all contests relative to the rights of cities; civdades, which differ from villa, the former having a particular jurisdiction, and being represented in the Cortes of the kingdom. Madrid, for example, is only a villa, yet is represented in the Cortes, like the civdades.

The Camara is also the council which issues all acts or patents of royal favour. All places in the magistracy, and all consistorial benefices, are conferred by its means. It recommends to his Majesty, through the medium of his minister of favour and justice, three persons to fill them, and the King chuses one of the three.

No place in the magistracy is venal in Spain. This, like all human institutions, has its advantage and inconvenience. If it leaves a greater opening to caprice, favour, and intrigue, it prevents the tribunals from being dishonoured by incapacity and ignorance, and diminishes the temptation to sell that justice of which the right of dispensing it had been previously purchased. It is true, that the integrity of magistrates, frequently without fortune, must appear suspicious, and that their moderate fees seem but a weak barrier against corruption. However, notwithstanding the declamations of dissatisfied clients, iniquitous and partial judges are not more common in Spain than in other countries.

There is a kind of gradation in the Spanish magistracy, of which the degrees are easily traced. All the members of the Camara are ancient counsellors of Castille; these seldom obtain their places without having been presidents in some inferior tribunals. In the same manner from among the Advocates, Corregidors, or Alcaldes Mayores, the latter are chosen. It may here not be amiss to give some account of the different species of Alcaldes, which are frequently confounded by foreigners; so much so, as if, in England, a sheriff's officer was to be taken for a justice of the peace, or vice versâ.

First, there are two classes of simple Alcaldes established in the cities, boroughs, and villages. The Alcalde ordinario judges in the first instance, when there is no Corregidor; but, in places where there is one, he has cognizance of civil causes in concurrence with him, whilst the latter acts only in matters of police. The Alcalde pedanco, taken from the lower class of people, has no other functions but those of arresting delinquents, and executing the orders of the Corregidor, or Alcalde Mayor.

The simple Alcaldes are differently appointed, according to the places in which they reside. The Alcaldes Mayores, or Corregidors, which have both the same meaning, are all named by the King upon the presentation of the Camara. This inferior degree of magistracy was formerly under very improper regulations: the place of Corregidor being bestowed on persons of small fortune, who frequently expended their whole property in soliciting the promotion. After having succeeded, they held their places three years, when their office expired, and they were again obliged to have recourse to new solicitations. How could it be expected that men, scarcely escaped from want, and upon the brink of relapsing into their former indigence, would not be tempted to insure to themselves resources at the expence of those over whom they possessed a transient authority? It was necessary to preserve the subjects of the King from their rapacity, and the magistrates from temptation. Men virtuous, from an innate love of virtue, and who resolve firmly not to commit evil, though they can perpetrate it to their advantage, and with impunity, are rare in every country; and the Corregidors but too frequently confirmed this melancholy truth. It was, therefore, determined that they should continue in office six years instead of three, that there should be three classes of them, and that they should pass from one class to another, after having well discharged the duties of their first place; that their emoluments should be increased at every removal; and that, having thus gone through the three classes to the satisfaction of his Majesty, they should have what is called in Spain the honours of Togado, that is, the title and prerogatives annexed to the place of counsellor of the superior tribunals, whether their acknowledged merit was rewarded by one of these places, or that they still continued to occupy the post of Corregidor of the first class.

It now remains to shew how justice is administered in Madrid, as well as in the rest of the kingdom. The Roman or civil law may be said, strictly speaking, to have here no force. This, by some old ordinances of the king's of Castille, is even forbidden, under severe penalties, to be so much as quoted. These laws, however, which for so long a time were the object of a blind admiration, and against which it is now become the custom to declaim with virulence, are frequently consulted in practice. The Spaniards observe a just medium between the two extremes. They do not adopt the civil law implicitly, and look upon all its decisions as infallible; but their lawyers derive from it knowledge and authorities; being convinced that, in the midst of a number of laws contradictory to each other, many are to be found dictated by reason, and applicable to every legislation.

The only authentic laws, according to which justice is administered, are registered in the Codes, published by the ancient kings; such as are the Ley de las siete partidas, the Ordenamiento-Real, the Fuero-Juzgo, and Fuero-Real. The principal Code, that which is in constant use, is called Recopilacion. It is a collection of various and distinct edicts of the monarchs of Spain, from the earliest ages to the present reign. A new edition is given from time to time, in which all the laws, published since the last, are inserted; for it is not till after they are thus registered, that certain edicts acquire the force of law.

The canon law is the received code in Spain, in all ecclesiastical matters. But it must not be imagined that the court of Madrid pays implicit obedience to the orders of the holy see. There is no catholic kingdom in which more successful efforts have been made to lighten this yoke.

There still exists in Spain, very great abuse arising from religion, ill understood; this is the extreme riches of the monks and clergy. Next to the ecclesiastical principalities of Germany, the richest catholic prelacies are found in Spain. The archbishoprics of Toledo, Seville, St. Jago, Valencia, and Saragossa, have larger revenues than any in France. There are monasteries, the property of which extends to the greatest part of the district in which they are situated, and these religious foundations, while they depopulate and impoverish the neighbouring country, increase poverty and idleness by indiscriminate charity.

The government, however, which becomes more and more enlightened, is endeavouring to lessen the consequence of these evils. In the first place, the wise choice of prelates prevents in them that display of offensive luxury, which, by irritating indigence, diminishes the respect due to religion. Their constant residence in their diocese, makes them expend their revenues in the country by which they are paid. All the prelates there employ a great part of their income in alms. When we come to treat of taxes, it will be seen that they pay considerable contributions.

In Spain there is but one religious institution, which philosophy mourns to see that nation subjected to; it may be easily perceived, that by this is meant the Holy Office, that tribunal to which every odious epithet has been given, and which has still, in Spain, two powerful supporters, policy and religion.

Its defenders alledge, that the authority of the Sovereign find, in the Holy Office, a means of making itself respected, since, by chaining the consciences of the subjects, it provides another security for their obedience. They assert, that religion gains by it the preservation of its unity and purity, and attribute to the inquisition the tranquillity which Spain has, in this respect, constantly enjoyed, whilst the rest of Europe has been a prey to all the bitterness of religious quarrels, and the turbulent zeal of innovators.

The antagonists of the inquisition maintain, on the contrary, that it has fed superstition and fanaticism, and kept the mind in a servile subjection, fit only to repress those vigorous efforts of genius by which great works of every kind are produced; that, while it contracts the heart by fear, it prevents the sweet effusions of confidence and friendship, destroys the most intimate connexions which constitute their charms, and, for two whole centuries, has condemned Spain to ignorance and barbarism.

These are no doubt very serious accusations. But an account of the present state of this tribunal, will shew how far they are well founded. The establishment of the Holy Office was cotemporary with the religious wars, with all the outrages which fanaticism has produced in most of the states of Christendom. But, since that period, manners are happily become more civilized; and, if the primitive constitution of the Spanish inquisition has not been changed, the rigours of it have at least been softened, and are become less frequent. Auto de fés are not the same pompous solemnities as formerly, when, by their apparatus, under pretence of honouring religion, they insulted humanity; when the whole nation ran to them as to a triumph; when the sovereign and all his court were present, believing they thus performed a most meritorious act in the eyes of the Deity, and there enjoyed the torments of those victims delivered up to the executioner, and the maledictions of the people.

The forms of the procedure excepted, the inquisition may at present be esteemed as a model of equity and mildness. It takes every possible means of verifying the depositions it receives. Let it not be said, says Bourgoanne, that the resentment of a secret enemy is sufficient to provoke its rigours. It condemns not upon the evidence of one accuser, nor without discussing the proofs of the accusations. Serious and repeated crimes are necessary to incur its censures; which, with a little circumspection in words and conduct respecting religion, are easily to be escaped, and men may live as unmolested in Spain, as in any other country in Europe. The indiscreet zeal of some of the commissaries, indeed, disturbs the quiet of the inhabitants in some cities, by entering their houses to confiscate pictures too licentious, or books that are prohibited; but this zeal is repressed either by the court or the Grand Inquisitor, who in the present and late reign has always been a learned and prudent prelate.

As a proof of this, some French merchants at Cadiz, having received a consignment of leather from one of their manufactories, were much alarmed at seeing the officers of the inquisition enter their houses. They desired to see the leather that was just arrived, and having observed that it bore the image of the Holy Virgin, which was the mark of the manufacture, exclaimed against the profanation. They remarked that the leather being intended to make shoes, the image of the mother of Christ ran the hazard of being trodden under foot, and therefore confiscated it. The affair was referred to the supreme tribunal of Madrid. The merchants, much alarmed, had recourse to the court, by the medium of their Ambassador. The consequence of which was, that the officers of the inquisition were enjoined not to molest strangers on such trifling pretences; and the merchants recovered their leather without further trouble.

On other occasions, still more recent, the minister and the Grand Inquisitor have protected the inhabitants against the cavils of the subalterns of the Holy Office. In a city of Andalusia they attempted to give disturbance to a French house, because they were protestants; and, when it was observed to them, that the English and other Northern nations were tolerated in Spain, though they were heretics, it was answered that the catholic religion was the only one established in France. The cause, however, of this persecuted house was no sooner brought before the court than it was gained.

In fine, tho' we should admit that bigotry is more prevalent in the capital than in the provinces, no great inconveniences can arise from it, because the sentences of the provincial tribunals have no force until they have received the sanction of that of Madrid. Besides the court scrutinizes more strictly than ever the proceedings of the inquisition, and certainly not with an intention of increasing its severity.

The Holy Office, to this day, receives a certain tax from each vessel that arrives in any of the ports of Spain, in consequence of the examination it is authorized to make, in order to see that the vessel contains nothing that may be offensive to religion. The search has been for a long time neglected, but the duty is still paid.

Before we quit this subject we shall take notice of another political body, which many strangers confound with the inquisition, but which has no other relation with it than the common epithet.

This is the holy Thermandad, much spoken of in Spanish novels; it is no more than a confraternity, in different parts of the kingdom of Castille, to watch over the safety of the country, by apprehending those who disturb the public peace. It is subordinate to the council of Castille, who do not permit its Jurisdiction to extend to cities.

Having now taking a general view of the constitution, government, and interior administration of the Spanish monarchy, both in civil and religious matters, we proceed to treat of its finances and population, or rather of the causes of its depopulation.

CHAP. XXI. On the Finances, Population, and General State of the Kingdom.

THE finances of Spain may be divided into two classes; and these compose most of the revenues of the King: General rents and provincial rents.

The general rents arise from duties paid at the frontiers upon merchandize entering or going out of the kingdom. This duty has been increased by degrees, in many of the provinces, to 15 per cent. upon every article of importation or exportation. It varies however in different provinces, and in some is not more than four or five per cent. ad valorem. There are, besides, several articles, such as cocoa, chocolate, sugar, and paper, which pay particular duties.

The whole produce of the general rents when they were farmed, did not amount to more than about £270,000. A few years after they, were put into commission they produced £400,000, and in 1776, they produced £580,000.

There are some other duties which may be included in the general rents, although differently collected; and their produce does not enter the same chest; such are the duties of the office of health, first established at Cadiz, and since extended to the other sea-ports in Spain.

Secondly, The duties of the Grand Admiral which were appropriated to the treasury by Ferdinand V. in 1748, and two other duties, one under the name of Lanzas, the other of medias annatas, or half the first fruits. The first is an annual contribution of nearly £40, paid by all the grandees of Spain, and by every citizen honored with the title of Castille. The half of the first fruits is paid at each descent of the above titles, and amounts to about £250. It is also levied upon all employments, to the amount of half the first year's income, upon entering into office.

The produce from the sale of salt makes a separate article in the finances of Spain. This is exclusively sold for the King's account, the same as in France, yet the revenue from salt is not considerable, and scarcely exceeds 4,000,000 livres, which is not the tenth part of what it produces in France, though the population of this latter country is not more than double that of Spain.

There is still a greater difference between the profits arising to these two kingdoms from the sale of tobacco, which is sold exclusively for the account of the Sovereign. In Spain, the produce of this article is calculated at 20,000,000 of livres, whereas in France, previous to the late revolution, it produced near seven times as much.

The prohibitory laws on this article in Spain are very severe, and in certain cases makes the punishment of selling it death. This, like all other laws which are too severe, is seldom enforced. Great quantities of tobacco are smuggled into Spain, and those who vend it, at the exorbitant price of a guinea a pound, to gratify the inclinations which mankind always have for whatever is prohibited, are considerable gainers by this illegal traffic.

There are also other articles sold exclusively for the King's account. These are brandy, lead, gunpowder, cards, Spanish wax, and stamped paper.

The most reprehensible part of the Spanish taxes, however, is the second class; the provincial rents: a species of imposts which, falling upon the necessary articles of life, is a burden to the people, and one of the greatest obstacles to industry.

The provincial rents are, first, the produce of a duty upon wine, oil, meat, vinegar, candles, &c. This was first levied under Philip II. in 1590, who, being overwhelmed by the ruinous enterprizes to which his ambition had impelled him, proposed it to the Cortes, upon conditions, most of which have been violated. This grant has been renewed every six years, and had different augmentations, called the services of the Millones, because it was for a certain number of millions of ducats that it was made.

Secondly, a duty of ten per cent. on every thing sold or bartered, whether used in manufactures or husbandry, to be paid every time the property is transferred. This tax was first granted by the Cortes in 1342. It was then but five per cent. In 1349, it received the increase of five per cent. more, and was made perpetual. In the 16th century it received four additions, each an hundredth part, whence it acquired the name of Cientos.

These two duties united ought therefore to amount to 14 per cent. but they vary in different cities and provinces, according to particular privileges, granted by the sovereign, which in some places have entirely superseded them, and they are no where levied to their utmost extent; which, however, does not prevent their being very burthensome to industry and commerce.

The tercias reales are another impost, collected with the provincial rents; these are two-ninths, which the Court of Rome, in 1274, permitted the kings of Spain to receive upon all the tenths of their kingdom. They are paid in kind from the produce of the earth, and afterwards sold for the king's account. This impost, with two or three others, collected under the same denomination, is not very productive; but would be susceptible of considerable augmentation were government in collecting it, not to trust to the unfaithful statement of the ecclesiastical offices.

The duties of entry into Madrid also, form another source of revenue to the crown; these are at present farmed out to the community of Gremios, or five united companies of Madrid, at 7,000,0000 and a half of reals.

All these interior contributions, which relate only to the provinces of the crown of Castille, produce about 1,400,000 pounds. The provinces of the crown of Arragon have another form of taxation, having no provincial rents, such as those abovedescribed. They pay one general contribution, which each city, borough, and community, assesses on its inhabitants. As some of these provinces were the last to hold out against Philip V. this form of taxation was intended as a punishment; but his intention has been defeated, as, in fact, they are better treated than the rest of the kingdom.

Catalonia, which, more than any other province, excited the Monarch's indignation, was subjected to a register, in which all the lands were undervalued, and taxed at eight per cent. on their annual rents; but they scarce pay more than one per cent. To this register was added, a tax upon industry; but this, not being arbitrarily assessed, is not burthensome, and neither of them are prejudicial to agriculture or industry, in Catalonia.

These provinces are, however, subject to the tax called tercias realès, and obliged to take at a fixed price the salt, tobacco, lead, &c. which are sold for the King's account. They are also equally subject to the bull of the crusade. The primitive object of this bull was to grant indulgences to those Spaniards who should contribute to support the war against the infidels. Until the reign of Ferdinand VI. this grant of the court of Rome was to be renewed every five years, the inconvenience of which Philip V. was very sensible, on three different occasions when his disputes with the Holy See, prevented a renewal of the bull. It was not till 1753, that, by compact with the court of Rome, this bull was made perpetual, since which time it has been a constant source of revenue to the treasury. The price of it is seven-pence or seven-pence-halfpenny. No catholic in Spain can dispense with purchasing it, without having his orthodoxy suspected. Provided with this bull, besides the other indulgences annexed to it, such as a remission from certain sins, he has the liberty of eating meat, with the consent of his physician and confessor; as also to eat eggs and milk on fast-days, and in Lent.

For this bull the nobles pay according to Townsend, about six shilling and four-pence: the commons about one third of that sum, in Arragon, but less in the provinces of Castille. "No confessor (he adds) will grant absolution to any one who has not this bull." Townsend says, the produce of this tax is reckoned at above £200,000 per annum, but Bourgoanne does not estimate it at quite so much.

The clergy are not exempt from this tax; nor is this the only one they pay. In the first place they are in part subject to that of millones; but to this it is necessary the Pope should consent, every six years, by a brief. Besides, as in most cases, fact differs from right, the clergy pay next to nothing of the millones, which tax falls upon the body of the people.

There is another impost, called subsidio, to which the clergy are liable. This is one per cent. granted by the Pope to the King's of Spain, upon all ecclesiastical lands, for the wars against the infidels.

But the greatest contribution levied upon them, is the escusado, which consists in the right, granted by the Holy See to the kings of Spain, to appro¦priate to themselves the most advantageous tenth of each parish throughout the whole kingdom. In every parish the King chooses the best farm, whether for olives, corn, or wine, of which he takes the tythes both in Castille and Arragon. The clergy formerly agreed with him for this. Afterwards it was farmed by the gremios, or five united companies of merchants at Madrid, for 12,000,000 of reals; but in the year 1778, the clergy had the grant for one third less. Most of them accepted the offer, but they who thought themselves too poor to venture, refused, and these farms are let to the gremios, at 4,000,000. The gremios have been accused of this bargain, to purchase corn in all the country villages, when it is cheap, to lodge it in their granaries, and then selling it out at a high price, to starve the people, and enrich themselves.

It may be imagined that Spanish America is one great source of revenue to the royal treasury; but hitherto its produce has been but trifling. For a long time the expences of the administration of these immense colonies, were not defrayed by the revenues they produced: and it is only since the administration of M. de Galvez that Mexico has yielded a surplus, by the establishment of the farm of tobacco. The Indian revenue in America is said to amount to near 4,000,000 and an half sterling.

"All these duties and contributions (says Bourgoanne) of which we have given a summary acaccount, amounted in 1776, to no more than 110,000,000 of livres, or about 4,000,000 and an half sterling, and the expenditure was then exceeded by the receipts." This, according to Townsend, appears to have been the case ten years after; for in the year 1786, the Minister of the Finance, in his circular letter, sent through all the provinces, urged the collectors to double diligence in collecting the taxes, because the expences of government were 40,000,000 of reals more than the revenue. Since that short period the revenue is increased, and the last statement of Mr. Eden, our Ambassador, is 500,000,000 of reals, or 5,000,000 British, and that now they have a surplus of revenue to discharge former debts.

Though the debts of this kingdom are not so great as those of France or England, yet they amount to a very considerable sum, and are of various kinds; some ancient, and some more recent. The former date their origin from the revolt of the Belgic provinces, in 1566, and a conflict of more than 43 years, during which, contracting a debt of 200,000,000 of dollars, Spain brought on such a derangement in her finances, that she has ever since been in a crippled state, when she has found herself engaged in a war. The country, exhausted by this long contest, cried universally for peace, and Philip III. in 1609, although he would not acknowledge the sovereignty of the new republic, consented to a truce; but his successor, having other views, provoked hostilities, carried on a very expensive war, and, before he consented to the peace of Munster, and to the independency of the United Provinces, in 1646, discovered that he had doubled the debt; which, therefore, amounted to about 60,000,000 sterling.

The principal creditors, the Genoese, and other foreign merchants; to whom, as security for payment of the principal, with interest, government assigned certain portions of the revenue, denominated Juros; because they passed, like other property, either by descent or transfer.

These Genoese, and other foreign merchants, being, after the expulsion of the Jews, the chief farmers of the revenue, were accused of innumerable frauds against the public; and this, both with the connivance and participation of the clerks and comptrollers of the treasury. When their evil practices were brought to light, they sold their juros to the natives; yet frauds continued, and thus administered, the interest of the debt swallowed up the whole of the revenue.

In order therefore to redeem these juros, the tax called millones, already spoken of, was granted by the Cortes; yet the deficit continued: In consequence of this, many whose ancestors had purchased juros were happy to sell them at a loss of 90 per cent. whilst the Genoese and strangers, still farmers of the revenue, being purchasers, paid them back for rent, to government, at par.

The second class of public debts are those contracted by the Emperor Charles V. in his rash war. These amounted, according to the Abbé Raynal, to near 42,000,000 sterling. But the interest of this being then more than the whole revenue, the state, in the year 1688, became bankrupt.

At the death of Charles II. and the accession of a new family, public credit was restored; and, in less than half a century, Philip V. availing himself of this reviving confidence, contracted fresh engagements, to the amount of near 7,000,000 sterling. At his death, Ferdinand VI. his son and successor, an equitable and pious prince, terrified at so enormous a burden, and hesitating between the fear of making the state support it, and the scruple of depriving the creditors of their right, assembled a junto, composed of ministers, bishops, and lawyers, and proposed to them the following question; Is a king obliged to pay the debts of his predecessors? Will it be believed that it was decided in the negative, under pretence that the state was a patrimony, of which the sovereign had but the temporary use, and that he was answerable for no engagements but his own? This decision, equally contrary to reason, justice, and policy, quieted the conscience of the monarch, and legalized in his eyes that which was a real bankruptcy. The payment of the debts of Spain was entirely suspended.

Ferdinand VI. carried his inconsiderate economy still further; wholly employed in making savings, he suffered every branch of administration to languish; the army, fortresses, and colonies were neglected. When Charles III. ascended the throne, in 1759, he found in the royal coffers upwards of 165,000,000 of livres. The new sovereign, more delicate in his scruples than his predecessor, thought it incumbent on him to repair the fatal omission of Ferdinand VI. In 1761, he paid six per cent. of the capital due from Philip V. but, beginning with his own subjects, he put off foreigners until all the Spanish debts should be discharged. This was acting towards his subjects as a good father might towards his children, but it was perhaps destroying all the sources of future foreign credit. In modern times, when war costs more money than men, when great enterprizes require frequently prodigious sums, what state can supply its own wants? Spain continued for five years to pay six per cent. in diminution of her capital debt. In 1767 the dividend was reduced to four per cent. and in 1769 the expences of the state were so increased as to necessitate a suspension of further dividends; an interruption which gave the finishing stroke to the credit of government. They are still received in payment of first-fruits, but, except in this, and one or two other cases, the claims of Philip V. are almost of no value; they bear no interest, and the entire liquidition of them, if ever it should take place, can only be considered as very distant.

It is not but the Spanish government perceives the inconvenience of depriving the possessors of these claims of their rights. But the necessities of the state have not hitherto permitted it to adopt proper measures. In 1783 government endeavoured with this view, to open a loan of •80,000,000 of reals. One of the conditions of the loan was, that the claims upon Philip V. should be received, to the amount of a third of the subscription. This, however, did not raise the value of the claims so much as was expected; the credit of states resembles the human body, an instant may destroy either, but much time is required to give them strength and maturity. The loan, which was supposed to be offered upon advantageous terms, tempted but few persons to subscribe. Foreigners, who would have been glad to have made advantage of their claims, were deterred by the consideration that they must risk a capital double the sum they wished to recover. The loan, in fact, recalled to their minds the loss they had sustained.

The Spanish nation is in general suspicious, and does not resemble those which the spirit of stock-jobbing keeps in continual fermentation. Far from being tempted by foreign speculations, for the sake of greater gain, it confines its confidence to the company of merchants at Madrid, known by the name of Gremios, of which we have already had occasion to speak. The treasure of the Gremios is a kind of public bank, in which individuals may place their money at the moderate interest of two and a half and three per cent.

The foundation of this confidence arises from the support given by government to the Gremios, and from the regularity observed by this society in paying the interest of the capital in their hands. The government, which has frequently had recourse to them in cases of necessity, has long considered this bank as the chief pillar of the state.

Administration has however lately perceived that it could do without them. During the late war in America, Spain being obliged to issue paper currency, at different periods, to the amount of between four and five millions sterling, notwithstanding the high interest it bore, and its being deemed lawful payment in all money transactions, these bills were for a long time received with repugnance; and the paper money issued by government was depreciated 24 per cent. when M. Cabarrus, by the institution of a national bank, called the bank of S. Charles, restored the public credit, and saved the country.

This bank is too singular in its history to be passed over in silence. The principal object proposed was to establish a capital, which should discount, at four per cent. per annum, all bills drawn upon Madrid. This resource was moderate, Madrid not being properly a commercial city. It was further held out, that the profits of the realgiro, a particular species of bank, from which the court takes the money it has occasion to send abroad for the payment of ambassadors, envoys, consuls, &c. or for other purposes, should be given to the national bank. This likewise was but a weak resource; the realgiro not paying more than two or three millions of livres annually.

But the chief source of profit which M. Cabarrus proposed to open to the national bank, was the victualling and furnishing of the army and navy: for this they were to be allowed ten per cent. commission for their trouble, besides four per cent. per annum, on all the money they should advance. Besides this, they were to have the exclusive privilege of exporting specie, collecting from the merchant four per cent. and three for the use of the bank. No entail was to be valid against the demands of the bank. Such were the advantages held forth to subscribers.

Its first institution was to consist of 150,000 shares, at 2000 reals each, constituting a capital of 3,000,000 sterling, with liberty to add, annually, 3000 shares, for 30 years, in order that there might not be one citizen of the Spanish empire excluded from this beneficial enterprize.

To create a confidence in the public, the directors were not to enter into any speculation, except where the King should give them a commission for foreign and distant commerce, or to favour the agriculture and manufactures of the kingdom; and to remove all occasions of jealousy, they were to have no monopoly; they were to receive at par, and thereby to procure a circulation for the government paper.

Those who had property to purchase shares were not excluded from the profits which these shares might produce, and, according to the prospectus, they seemed to be very promising. Besides the idle money to which an advantageous opening was to be given, it was hoped that great part of that in the hands of the Gremios, which was at such a very low interest, would be removed from their coffers to those of the national bank. The surplus of the grants from cities and communities was also reckoned upon. These, were in the administration of the council of Castille, whence the national bank was to take them, and make such use of them as should be most advantageous to the persons concerned. In Spain there are magazines of grain in most of the cities, boroughs, and villages, and of these there are upwards of 5000. Their surplus is converted into money. This also was an useless capital, which the bank might employ. Hence it appears that great advantages were promised to every class of citizens. It is not therefore astonishing that the minister adopted the project.

This bank met with rough usage in its beginning, but the indefatigable application of its projector, supported by the good sense of Count Florida Blanca, overcame all difficulties, and established it on a firm foundation. The first year the bank divided nine and a half per cent. and the second year a similar dividend was made, besides an investment of 21,000,000 of reals, amounting to nearly as much more, in the New Philippine Company.

In May, 1785, the bank made a proposal, the admission of which will furnish a new employment to its funds. This was to undertake the completion of the canal which begins at the foot of the mountains of Guadarama, and terminates at the Guadalquavir, after crossing the centre of Spain. It has offered to superintend the work, receiving ten per cent. commission, and four per cent. per annum, for all the money they should expend. This proposal has been accepted by government, which will furnish the bank with another means of augmenting its profits, and rendering itself advantageous to Spain, without endangering the funds.

"The placing money in this bank, (says Bourgoanne) I deem, with impartial judges, safe and advantageous. Not that the great dividends with which it hath began are always to be expected. The exportation of piastres will not in future be so beneficial as it was immediately after the peace; but so long as the bank preserves that exclusive privilege, and government shall confide to it the victualling, and other supplies for the army and navy, the principal source of its profits, the subscribers may reckon upon an interest, of from five to six per cent.

It may here be proper to speak of the quantity of money circulating in Spain, the amount of which is very difficult to come at, as great part of that struck in the Indies passes clandestinely into Europe. It is, therefore, only from loose calculation, and the opinions of some well-informed merchants, says Bourgoanne, that I have estimated it at 80,000,000 of double piastres, or about 16,500,000 sterling. It will, perhaps, be thought extraordinary, that Spain, in possession of most of the gold and silver mines in the world, and annually coining 30,000,000 of piastres, should be reduced to so moderate a sum of circulating money, especially when it is recollected, that in the reign of Charles V. it contained almost all the gold and silver in Europe; and, what is still more valuable, possessed in the productions of its soil and industry, the means of subsisting without the aid of any other nation.

In less than a century has this kingdom fallen from such a state of splendour. To what is this so rapid and total a revolution to be attributed? To the abundance of the precious metals, which have increased the price of manufactures, and the wages of workmen; to the great depopulation, occasioned by the numerous emigrations to America; the great destruction of men in the long wars, at a distance from the frontiers; and the expulsion of the Moors and the Jews. It may also be more particularly attributed to the ruinous wars, undertaken by Philip II. against the Low Countries; and which, from the year 1567 to the truce in 1612, cost upwards of 200,000,000 of piastres. But every thing announces, that Spain is rising from her own ashes, and will soon be industriously employed in cultivating her soil, and animating her manufactures. Weary of pursuing a passive commerce, she will soon cease to lessen her current coin, by paying foreign industry, and sending every year the greatest part of her money into foreign countries, for foreign produces.

The population of Spain, in 1787, appears to have been 10,268,150 souls. Such are the last returns to government. In the year 1770, the population, by the same authority, was stated to be 9,307,803. From thence it would seem that, in 17 years, the population had increased nearly 1,000,000 of inhabitants. In like manner, the number of souls in 1723, were 7,625,000, from whence it might be inferred, since that period she had advanced in population more than 2,500,000. But, according to Ustariz, the returns to Government are not always just; and the people, to lessen their contributions of men and money, conceal their numbers, and make false returns. This, however, is no conclusive argument against the increased population of Spain. For it is reasonable to infer, that the people have concealed their numbers, in the same proportion, in each of the returns.

Now, if from the number above stated as the population of 1787, we deduct 358,264, these being out of the peninsula, and inhabiting either the islands or the coasts of Africa, we shall have for the remainder 9,909,886; and, if we allow the area of Spain to be 148,448 square miles, we shall find 67 persons nearly to a square mile. This, if compared with Russia, is respectable; if with France, below mediocrity. In the former, they reckon five to a square mile; in the latter, 157. England comes in between France and Spain; but Spain, if properly cultivated, and well-governed, might be the first in Europe; not excepting Holland, which to its wise and equitable laws, is indebted for a population amounting to 272 on a square mile. Bernardo Ward, who was in the employment of the Spanish government, admits that 18,000 square leagues, of the richest land, are left uncultivated, and that 2,000,000 of the people are unemployed.

All are agreed, that Spain in more distant periods was much better peopled than at present. It may be useful, therefore, to trace the circumstances which have contributed to depress this once-powerful nation, and desolate, at least, comparatively, one of the richest countries in Europe.

In the year 1347, the plague broke out with more than common violence, at Almeria, and for three years ravaged Spain to such an extent, that many cities were left almost without inhabitants; and, through the whole peninsula, it reduced the population to one-third of what it was previous to that event. Subsequent to this cruel misfortune, Spain has been repeatedly laid waste by pestilential fevers, introduced from Africa, or dating their origin from some preceding famine. In 1649, more than 200,000 perished in the southern provinces. Such a vast extent of territory as this peninsula contains, having no communication either by roads or canals, divided formerly into a multitude of independent kingdoms, and, at a subsequent period, into provinces, each exacting heavy duties on the introduction of grain into them, must often have felt distress for want of bread. In fact, one province has been reduced to the extremity of famine, whilst others have been ruined by abundance. In 1642, wheat sold in Seville as high as 15 shillings and three-pence the bushel, and the year following so low as 16 pence. It was not till the year 1752, that corn was permitted to pass from one province to another. The consequence of famine, as is well known, is pestilence. The ordinary diet of the peasants predisposes them to receive infection, and the practice of the physicians in prescribing venesection indiscriminately to all their patients, does but increase the malady.

From all these circumstances concurring, few countries have sustained such losses, by epidemic diseases and pestilential fevers.

Another cause of depopulation is, that for more than seven centuries, from the year 714 to 1492, Spain was harrassed by incessant struggles, and the heart of that divided country, contending for dominion. These struggles did not cease till the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella united the crown of Arragon and Castille, and the conquest of Granada put a period to the empire of the Moors.

In 1493, Columbus opened a new channel for Spanish ambition, and gave beginning to endless emigrations, by the discovery of America. Previous to this period the nobility resided mostly on their estates, and, when not engaged in war, gave themselves up to the arrangement of their domestic concerns. Without accumulating treasures, many were able to conduct 5 or 6000 soldiers into the field; but when they had seen the gold and silver of Peru and Mexico, they became restless and impatient to obtain employment in those countries, and neglected the flower, yet more certain means of obtaining wealth, by the improvement of their lands. The people likewise emigrated in such numbers to America, that the maritime provinces suffered very essentially by their loss.

Emigrations, if regular, and in due proportion, do not weaken the parent state, but when sudden, and carried beyond certain bounds, tend to impoverish and depopulate a country. The former may be observed in the Highlands of Scotland, in Switzerland, and many parts of Germany: the latter was visible on the first discovery of America, and has ever since been severely felt.

From the accession of Charles I. of Spain, but the Vth of Germany, in 1506, Spain was engaged in war, with short intervals, for two centuries more, thereby, exhausting the treasures of America, and wasting the blood of its most adventurous subjects in Italy, Germany, Flanders, Portugal, and France, only to gratify the ambition of its sovereigns, and extend the bounds of their unjust dominion.

The immediate successors of Charles, having Spain, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, Milan, Franche Compté, and 17 provinces in the Low Countries, besides Portugal, and boundless territories in North and South America; such an immense and dispersed empire, weak in proportion to its extent, perpetually consumed both men and money, without the possibility of solidly uniting such distant and discordant provinces, under one command.

The cause, however, usually assigned for the depopulation of Spain, as if it were the only one, is the expulsion of the Moors. To this may be added the previous expulsion of the Jews, to the number of 800,000, who were banished by Ferdinand and Isabella in gratitude to Heaven for the conquest of Granada.

Consequent to the expulsion of the Moors, their depredations along the whole extent of the coast washed by the waters of the Mediterranean, rendered the most fertile parts of Spain unsafe, and the produce precarious. For the last century the number of Spanish captives at Algiers has usually been about 30,000, and their ransom, reckoned one with another, £150 at which it has been estimated, amounts to 4,000,000 and an half sterling. With such premiums for the ransom of their captives, these pirates found ample supplies for the equipment of their gallies.

No country ever invented a more ruinous system of finance, or one less friendly to manufactures and commerce. The tax of 14 per cent. on all commodities, both on the raw materials, and on the same when manufactured, as often as the property changes hands, rated, not according to the prime cost, but the selling price, is almost sufficient of itself, to occasion a general stagnation. This effect is visible in Castille, whilst in Catalonia, and in the province of Arragon, where Philip V. exchanged this oppressive tax for the equivalent, industry prevails and manufactures flourish. The millones likewise being a tax on provisions, tends to enhance the price of labour, and thereby indirectly forms an obstacle to foreign commerce.

Convents also are by no means favourable to population. These in Spain are 8932; containing near 100,000 monks and nuns; but the persons bound to celibacy by vows are little short of 200,000. The university of Toledo, in a memorial delivered to Philip III. in the beginning of the 17th century, complains, that not one tenth of the usual marriages took place; and particularly states, that, whilst commerce flourished, it had been usually said, he who has a trade has the best benefice; but that now all parents, dreading the poverty and wretchedness attached to trade, were inclined to breed up their children nuns, monks, and parish priests, or exposed them to perish in their infancy. Some of the best Spanish writers on political economy, (says Count Campomanes, in his Education Populaire) have declared against multiplying convents; and the cortes, with the consent of Philip IV. determined, in the last century, that no more should be built; but as general opinion is more powerful than law, this resolution of the cortes was never carried into effect.

"Numerous festivals (remarks the above writer) contribute to depopulate a country. Benedict XIV. lessened the number in his temporal estates, and recommended a similar reduction to his clergy. In consequence of this they have now only 93 general festivals, not including the special festivals of each parish, and of the religious houses, which in every city swell the number of unproductive days. If to these are added, the bull-feasts, and the Mondays, claimed by all classes of working-people for their diversion, the number of days in which work is done will be reduced very considerably; besides this, a fresh reduction must be made from their time, because the working hours are seldom more than six.

Prevalence of pasture also tends to depopulate a country. The same quantity of land, which in wild pasture would require the labour of one family, when tilled, gives employment to 20 or even twice that number. In Spain, ever since the year 1350, when the plague carried off two-thirds of the inhabitants, the laws of the Mesta have set the ploughman and the shepherd at variance, and prevented each from deriving the least advantage from the other, so that 5,000,000 sheep, under the sanction of a peculiar code, not only fail to enrich the lands on which they feed, but effectually prevent its cultivation. Independent of the Merino flock, many of the great landlords have suffered villages to go to ruin, and let their estates to graziers.

The want of yeomenry and substantial tenants is another obstacle to population. The distracted and divided state of the country, during the dominion of the Moors, made it necessary for the peasants to seek refuge in the cities, or associate in villages for their mutual defence. For this reason, independent farms, detached and distant from a town, are seldom or ever seen in the southern provinces of Spain. In the year 1347, when the plague had spread desolation through the country, many towns and villages were suffered to go to ruin and decay. To this event has been attributed the extensive territories of innumerable towns, many of which are from ten to 15 miles diameter, and therefore too far distant from the habitation of the farmer to admit of cultivation. Adjoining to the village may be observed vines, olives, figs, and grain. All beyond is desolation.

Previous to the recovery of the southern dominion from the Moors, many of the nobility could bring into the field 5 or 6000 vassals. But then, as most of these were little less than independent sovereigns, the prince was obliged to court and allure them to his standard, by the hope of making conquests for themselves. Hence they acquired towns, cities, and villages, with extensive districts.

In succeeding periods, the great nobility, taking advantage of the minority of the sovereign, extorted considerable grants from the king's demesne, in addition to those they already possessed, all which they transmitted to posterity. By intermarriages, many of these possessions have been united; three great lords, the Dukes of Osuna, Alba, and Medina-Coeli, cover almost the whole province of Andalusia; and the last of these claims, by inheritance, the greatest part of Catalonia.

Such vast possessions, passing by entail, are not friendly to population, more especially as the proprietor never resides upon his estates, and, being frequently in embarrassed circumstances, is little able to make improvements for his heirs.

The national prejudice against the settlement of strangers in Spain may likewise be added among the desolating causes. In 1622 strangers were allowed to be naturalized, and either to take farms or practise their mechanic arts, provided they did not settle within 20 leagues of the coast. In 1772, this privilege was extended to merchants, who were permitted to settle in any of the ports. For want of intercourse with other nations, all the arts, sciences and manufactures, appear to be at least a century behind the rest of Europe. In the year 1655, an author of high reputation, in his discourse on the population of Spain, asserted, that 120,000 strangers spread themselves over the country, and by their industry carried out of the kingdom, annually, near 1,000,000 sterling. He therefore recommends alms to be given to strangers, but not employment, and relates the history of a Spanish farrier, as an example to be followed. This man went to Paris, to work at his trade, but, being threatened with death, if he attempted to exercise his art in that metropolis, he retired to Bourdeaux, hoping there to find a more hospitable reception; but in that place they cut off one of his arms, that he might no longer work, and rob the French farrier of his bread.

Persecution too is a powerful cause of depopulation. It were endless to enumerate the advantages a community derives from toleration. As without an established religion the poor would be neglected, and in danger of losing all knowledge of the Deity; so without a toleration, according to Townsend, there could be no competition, and therefore little scope for emulation, without which, zeal, he says, would languish, and morals decay.

The gold and silver of America, say the Spanish writers of eminence, instead of animating the country, and promoting industry, have had an opposite effect, and produced in the end, weakness, poverty, and depopulation. The wealth arising from industry, resembles the copious, yet tranquil stream, which, passing silently along, enriches the whole extent of country through which it flows; but the treasures of the new world, like a swelling torrent, were seen, were heard, were felt, and were admired; yet their first operation was desolating and laying waste the spot on which they fell. The price of labour, provisions, and manufactures, bore proportion to the quantity of circulating cash. The consequence of which was, that all the manufactures went to ruin and decay; every thing was imported from abroad, and, till the present century, Spain purchased all her men of war, with masts and cordage from Holland, rigging from France, ammunition from England, and even her gallies from the Genoese.

Among other causes of depopulation, Count Campomanes reckons, likewise, corporations. In Spain these are injurious to a degree scarce to be conceived. In all the trading companies, or Gremios, religious fraternities are formed, who make laws, sit in judgment on offenders, and in many cases claim exemption from the common tribunals of the country.

These corporations, which are established in cities, banish by their oppressive laws, all the mechanic arts from towns and villages. In the cities they limit the numbers in every branch of business, and go so far as to assign the distance between shop and shop, under pretence that two shops vending the same commodity, must not be so near as to interfere with each other: in other cities they assemble all the mechanics of the same profession in one street, particularly silversmiths, the pretext for which then is, that the magistrate may more easily inspect their work, and see that the various articles in which they traffic are of a proper standard.

In many cases the various Gremios bear hard upon each other. The carpenter must not employ his industry on any other wood but deal, nor must he invade the province of the turner. The turner must work only in wood, and not presume to touch either ivory or metals. The wheeler must not, however qualified, extend his art beyond the appointed bounds, so as to encroach on the coach-maker, who is equally restrained from making or mending either cart or waggon-wheel. The barber may shave, draw teeth, or bleed, but he must not make wigs. It is the same with shop-keepers as with mechanics, they must confine themselves to their proper articles; and, under no pretence, may the manufacturers open magazines to sell by retail.

The incorporated fraternities in the kingdoms of Castille and Arragon, are 25,581, and their expences amount to near 12,000,000 of reals. This revenue is not consumed, as with us, in feasting, but in procuring masses either for departed spirits, or for the benefit of the fraternity, in which each individual has an equal interest. For this reason these communities enjoy the protection of the ecclesiastical courts, to which, in cases of necessity, they frequently appeal.

The chartered corporations claim their privileges by royal grant, and on this plea resist a reformation, not considering, as Campomanes remarks, the essential condition of these grants, that nothing therein contained, shall be to the prejudice of others, or injurious to the citizens at large.

Similar to the former causes, as checking manufactures, and thereby diminishing the population of a country, may be reckoned sumptuary laws. Baron Montesquieu himself applies this remark to Spain, and facts certainly vindicate the justice of his observations; for, had their dress been left to the whim and caprice of the inhabitants, the more delicate manufactures, which are now lost, would, by the certainty of a ready market, have been retained among them.

With so many subsisting causes of depopulation, in vain did Philip IV. in 1623, offer a premium for marriage. In vain did he grant all the privileges of nobility to all new married men for four years. In vain did he deprive the nobles of their privileges, if unmarried at the age of 25; and offer all the exemptions belonging to nobility for life to the father of six children.

Should, however, the people take advantage of the present crisis to assert their freedom; should they, happy in possessing one of the richest countries upon earth, contract the bounds of their unwieldy empire, and confine their views within the limits of their own peninsula, cherish industry, abolish their monastic orders, lessen the number of their festivals, establish an agrarian law, and strike off the fetters by which their commerce has been bound; we may venture to affirm that no country, of the same extent, would be more populous, more wealthy, or more powerful, than Spain.

CHAP. XXII. Army, Military Orders, and Navy.

THE Spanish infantry consists of 44 regiments, of two battalions each, without including those of the Spanish and Walloon guards, each containing 4,200 men, in six battalions. Of these 44 regiments, 35 are Spanish, two Italian, three Flemish, and four Swiss. White or blue is the colour of their regimentals, except one Spanish and three Irish, dressed in red.

These 88 battalions, each of which ought to contain 684 men, would make the Spanish infantry amount to about 60,000 men complete, which is very far from being the case; and it has been asserted, though perhaps without foundation, that Spain would find it difficult to bring into the field 30,000 effective men. It is however certain, that her infantry is not adequate to the great extent of her possessions; since garrisons must be left in Africa, as well as several parts of her colonies. In 1776, it appears, that Spain had no less than 32 battalions out of Europe, and, in 1782, 36 in America alone.

The means of recruiting in Spain are very confined. The Spanish people in general have a peculiar dislike to enlist in the infantry. Every regiment finds it difficult to procure men, and they are obliged to beat up in those places where most dupes and libertines are assembled; thus those who disturb its repose are appointed to its defence. The soldiers of the French regiments, impelled by their inconstancy, take advantage of the neck of the Pyrenees, to go and engage themselves to Spanish recruiters. Foreign regiments in the service of Spain, are particularly recruited at the expence of the French regiments. Thus all the inconvenience of the proximity of the respective garrisons is on the side of France, and the court of Madrid is by no means desirous of a cartel for exchanging deserters. It was thought sufficient, in 1761, that each should agree to return the arms, horses, and baggage, of the soldiers passing from one service to the other.

Another mode of recruiting the Spanish army, is that of the quintas, a kind of drawing of militia, different from that of France, though it is there in use, both for recruiting the army and the provincial regiments. The ordinance of 1705, enacts, "that for recruiting the regulars, lots shall be drawn in each village, to chuse one person our of five; but then the drawing of the militia is to be suspended." This is, no doubt, the etymology of the word quintas. As it frequently happens, the word remains, when the thing is changed. The quintas at present do not require so great a number; and as the people have on some occasions murmured at this mode of recruiting, government resorts to this expedient only in the last extremity. She had not recourse to it in the last war, and the regiments employed at Minorca and Gibraltar, were compleated at the expence of those not in actual service.

Besides the 44 regiments of regular infantry, Spain has 42 of militia, distributed in the provinces of the crown of Castille. These regiments are assembled only for one month in the year, in the principal place of which they bear the name; and then the officers and soldiers are paid; at all other times, they are dispersed in the villages, and follow their respective occupations. These regiments, which all consist of one single battalion of 720 men, except that of Majorca, which has two, must always be complete. As soon as a soldier of the militia dies, deserts, or is discharged, lots are drawn in the village whence he was taken, to replace him.

The regiments of militia have a particular inspector. Their colonels are chosen, as in England, from among the most distinguished gentry of the district; and their authority is very extensive over the men. They have the power of inflicting punishments, and there is no appeal from their sentences, but to the King, through the medium of a council of war. Few states in Europe have so well regulated a militia. The grenadiers of these regiments, are in time of war, united to the regular troops, and enjoy among their fellow ctizens, a reputation, which their whole conduct, during the last war, justly merited.

The Spanish soldiers have long been justly renowned for their firm and persevering courage, and the resolution with which they support labour, fatigue, and hunger. Of the officers, it has been said, but with what foundation we do not pretend to determine, that their troops were not so well commanded as they ought to be. Spanish officers, however, have not the same means of forming themselves with the French. Most of their garrisons are solitary and ill-provided, without resource either for instruction or innocent pleasures; the officers have not the privilege of the semestres, or leave of absence for six months every year, or every second year, as in France; neither can they but seldom obtain leave of absence to regulate their private affairs. This unvaried and insipid life, in the end absorbs the faculties, and destroys activity, or diverts the mind to improper objects. It has, besides, the inconvenience of rendering the service less desirable, and keeping from it those to whom a smaller fortune, or liberal education offer other resources.

The cavalry consists of 14 regiments, not including the brigade of carbiniers, raised in 1730.

Of these regiments, six are in blue, four in red, three in white, and one in green.

The dragoons form eight regiments, of which one is in blue, one in red, and six in yellow. Each regiment of cavalry is composed of four squadrons, which should contain 150 men. Were the regiments compleat, Spain would have an army of 13,000 horse. In time of peace, the 600 men, of which each regiment ought to be composed, is reduced to 480, and of this number, there are 80 men dismounted.

This arrangement was made in 1768. The result is, that the cavalry is less agreeable than it would otherwise be to the Spaniards, because the new recruits remain three or four years on foot, waiting their turn to have spare horses. Notwithstanding these defects, the Spanish cavalry may be reckoned among the finest in Europe.

The cavalry in Spain is not so easily mounted as it might be supposed, from the great celebrity of the Spanish horses. The breed is said to be degenerated; this is attributed to the little care that has been taken to cross it, and particularly to the great number of mules bred from some of the finest Spanish mares.

Nature, which has so liberally bestowed on Spain all the necessaries and luxuries of life, has been equally lavish in bestowing all the materials of which war composes the means of destruction; she has given iron in abundance, copper, lead, and salt-petre; this country, therefore, need not be indebted to any other for the supply of its artillery with these destructive treasures.

The Spanish artillery is collected into one regiment, composed of five battalions, without including the cadets. The corps of engineers are separated from the artillery. It consists of ten directors, ten colonels, 20 lieutenant-colonels, 30 captains, 40 lieutenants, and as many sub-lieutenants; in all 150 officers.

According to some late regulations, no person can become an officer, without having been a cadet. The military school first established at Avila, and since removed to Port S. Mary, is not so much intended to instruct students in the first elements of tactics, as to cultivate the dispositions of officers, who have the noble emulation of distinguishing themselves in the military profession. Nothing is omitted in this academy, which may conduce to that end; and it is perhaps the first institution of the kind in Europe.

The kings of Spain have no more forgotten the declining years of military men, than their youth. There is a corps of invalids in Spain, as well for officers as for soldiers; but the 46 companies of which it is composed, are distributed at Madrid, and in the provinces where they perform an easy duty. Those incapable of all service, form another corps of 26 companies.

The uniforms in the Spanish service, says (Swinburne,) are ugly and ill made; the soldiers abominably nasty in their cloaths, and their black greasy hair seldom drest. Till very lately, they were commonly in rags, and often mounted guard with half a coat, and almost bare breeched; but now they are rather better clad, and kept in a somewhat more decent trim.

The pay of a soldier is five quartos and an half, and 21 ounces of bread a day. After 15 years service, he has an increase of five reals a month; after 20, 9 reals; and after 25, he may retire and receive a pezzetta per diem, and be cloathed, as if he was still in actual service. The pezzetta is four reals, a real is about three-pence English, and a quarto not quite a halfpenny. If the soldier remains 30 years in the army, he is allowed the rank and pay of a subaltern officer. Every 40 months he receives new regimentals, two shirts, two stocks, one pair of shoes, two pair of stockings, a cap, and a hat.

The rank of any officer may be known at first sight, by a particular badge of distinction. A captain-general's dress-uniform is blue, embroidered with gold down the seams, and three rows of embroidery on the sleeves: a lieutenant-general's has nothing on the seams, and but two rows on the cuffs; a mariscal de campo, but one: a brigadier has red cuffs, with one row of silver embroidery on his coat: a colonel has three narrow bindings on his sleeve, of the colour of his regimental button; a lieutenant-colonel, two; and a major, one; the mark of a captain is two epauletts; of a lieutenant, one on his right shoulder; and of an ensign, one on the left.

The pay of a lieutenant is two pezzettas and a half per diem; that of an ensign, two. As every thing is trebled in price since their pay was established, it is become insufficient for the maintenance of the officers. In the guards, all subalterns must live upon their own fortune, till they get a company, which they may perhaps wait 30 years for.

In Spain there is no order of knighthood destined for the reward of military officers. The late sovereign imposed on himself a law, to confer on none but these, the four military orders. There are besides these, other means of rewarding the old servants of the crown, by pensions or employments analogous to their profession. His beneficence also extends to their widows.

The place of commandant-general of a province, is an opening to general officers, but obliges them to an almost perpetual residence; for in Spain, bishops, intendants, governors and commanders reside where they are employed, although the residence of the Sovereign and the capital have the same temptations for ambition and dissipation, as in other countries.

All the commandants of provinces, have the title of Captain-general, which, however, must not be confounded with that of the first military rank. They commonly receive, but from an abuse, the title of Viceroy also, which properly belongs to none but the commandant, and those of the principal provinces of Spanish America.

We shall in this place take occasion to give some account of the military orders in Spain, most of which were created by the kings of Spain, during their continual wars against the Moors. Many of them are become extinct, which it may not be amiss just to notice, before we speak of those which at present exist. Of these former are:

The order of the Green Oak, founded by Ximenes; that of the Fleur de lys, by Sancho IV. King of Navarre; and the order of the Holy Saviour, by Alphonso VII. King of Arragon; these short lived orders are scarce worth remembering. But the order of the Flambeau is more deserving notice, having been instituted in 1150, by Berenzer, last Count of Barcelona, in favour of the women of Tortosa, as a recompense of the valour they had shewed the year before, in defence of their city against the Moors. The order no longer exists, but the women of Tortosa still enjoy several privileges granted at that time to their ancestors.

The other non-existing orders, are those of Truxillo; of S. Mary of Spain, of the Scarf; this order, perhaps, gave rise to all our blue, red, and green ribbons. It was founded by Alphonso XII. in 1332, who gave it as a distinguishing badge, a ribbon of the breadth of three fingers, which the knights wore over the right shoulder. Ten years military service were a qualification to be admitted.

There was likewise instituted in 1383, the order of Reason, and, what is singular, proofs of nobility were required as a qualification to be admitted. The distinguishing mark of the order, was a folded little ensign, hung to the mantle by means of a chain.

The order of Burgundy is also reckoned among those which have existed in Spain, having been instituted by Charles V. after his expedition to Tunis, in memory of that conquest. The insignia of the order was a cross of Burgundy, composed of two knotty staffs, above which was the word Barbaria. Spain still bears the cross in her flag.

Among the existing orders of Spain, are those of Alcantara, Calatrava, Santiago, Montesa, the Golden Fleece, and that of Charles III. The order of Alcantara was called the Noble; that of Calatrava, the Gallant, and that of Santiago, the Rich.

The first four of these orders were founded at the time of the crusades; the king is grand-master of them all. The first three are distinguished by a red ribbon, and the last by a green one. These four orders have commanderies, which are conferred by the King. They were for a long time given to every class of persons who could bring the requisite proofs. These orders have each lands in their possession, to the amount of 200,000 ducats, and upwards, of annual rent.

The most distinguishing order in Spain, is that of the Golden Fleece, founded by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, and which the court of Vienna continues to confer, in concurrence with that of Madrid; although the former had renounced this prerogative, by the treaty, which terminated the great quarrel between Philip V. and the Archduke. The collar of the order consists of an alternate range of gold flints and steels, with sparks of fire on all sides, and a Golden Fleece pendent from it with this motto, Autre n'aurai. Charles the Fifth, instead of the collar, permitted the knights to wear only a scarlet ribbon. The number of knights of this order is very limited in Spain, and it is the order, which of all those in Europe, has best preserved its ancient splendor.

With respect to the order of Charles III. this monarch having prescribed to himself an irrevocable law, to bestow the other orders on none but military men, an honourable distinction was wanting for the rest of his subjects. This he supplied in 1771, by creating a fifth order. It is composed of two classes, that of the great crosses, and the simple knights. The great crosses wear the great ribbon of the order, sky blue, edged with white. Their number should be limited to 60. This order is confined to the most eminent personages of the kingdom, such as the ministers and some general officers, distinguished either by their zeal or service.

The simple knights were 200 in number, each enjoying a pension of about £40. This lesser order has since been bestowed on some persons in France, not reckoned in the original number.

Proofs of nobility are necessary to this latter order, as well as to the four military orders. It is true, nobility in most of the provinces in Spain, is not difficult to establish. It is sufficient, that he who aspires to this distinction, proves himself and his ancestors to have lived nobly, without having exercised any of the professions, few in number, which law and prejudice reckon vile; he is then reputed a gentleman by descent, hidalgo; for in Spain, nobility by creation, is unknown. Some humourists have observed, that there are whole provinces of which the inhabitants are gentlemen; nor is this any great exaggeration.

Philip V. as we have already remarked, ennobled all the Biscayans, and all the Asturians believe they are descended from the ancient Goths, who took refuge in the mountains of Asturia, and are reputed noble, on account of this honourable origin. But there cannot be a more ridiculous absurdity than to suppose, that two or 300,000 men, settled some years ago in a small province, were all noble. If all men measured five feet eight inches high, the words giant and dwarf would be obliterated from the dictionary. Nobility necessarily supposes a more numerous class who are ignoble. Thus there are in Biscay and Asturia, distinguished families in the opinion of the public, who have made a great figure in the district wherein they reside, either by their opulence or the places they have held, and whatever may be the pretentions of obscure neighbouring families, the former affect a pre-eminence, which these acknowledge by their homages; so that if by chance they arrive at some employment of consequence, they are less insolent and vain, than most upstarts in other countries. This may be particularly remarked in the lower ranks of the Asturians and Biscayans. They have in their appearance something more haughty, and are less humble in their homages. They are not awed either by titles or riches. A man in place, is in their eyes a fortunate man, who has won in the royal lottery, in which they all have a ticket, and may win in their turn; and this prejudice, (says Bourgoanne) ridiculous as it may seem, keeps them against meanness and degrading crimes.

We shall now proceed to consider the navy of Spain, which is divided into three departments, those of Ferrol, Carthagena, and Cadiz.

The first has real inconveniences, from the unhealthiness of the climate, the frequent rains which retard the operations in the port, and its being so situated, that no vessel can sail from it, but with a particular wind.

The department of Carthagena has many advantages over that of Ferrol. The safety of its harbour is known by an old proverb among seamen, who say, 'there are but three good ports for vessels, the months of June and July, and the harbour of Carthagena.' This safety extends to the arsenals and dock-yards, which, being in a narrow place, may, according to the expression of the Spanish sailors, be locked by a single key. Carthagena, therefore, is the port where the greatest number of ships are built, caulked, and careened.

The department of Cadiz is, however, the most important of the three, on account of its favourable situation for the departure of the fleets.

The Spanish navy is governed much in the same manner as that of France. Instead of vice-admirals, there are captains-general. Immediately after the captains-general, rank the lieutenants-general, who are at present 17 in number, and the commodores 15. In the Spanish navy, there is likewise an intermediate rank between these and captains of vessels; that of brigadier. These are 40 in number. Of captains of ships there are 150; and of those of frigates 152.

To acquire rank in the Spanish navy, it is necessary to have passed through the garde marine. This corps was established in 1717; it consists of three companies, each containing 92 cadets, for whose instruction there is an academy, composed of a director and eight professors.

The officers of the navy are, with respect to military rewards, upon a footing with those of the army. The vice-royalties, governments of provinces, or places in America, are indiscriminately given to general officers of the army and those of the navy. But the officers of the Spanish navy have many other means of enriching themselves, which render the king's favours less necessary.

The sailors are classed as in France, and divided into three departments. The register of the classes make the whole amount to 50,000. Spain has also, for the service of her ships of war, a marine infantry, composed of 12 battalions, consisting of 168 men each, which form a corps of about 12,000 men.

Besides these, there is a particular corps of artillery, of 2,595 men, for whom there are theoretical and practical schools in each of the three departments.

Spain has also a society of pilots, with schools of pilotage.

In 1764, the Spanish navy consisted of only 37 ships of the line, and about 30 frigates. In 1770 there were 51 ships, of from 58 to 112 guns. Their number has since increased. Since the year 1776, according to Townsend, their navy has been more than doubled. In the summer of 1790, their fleet of observation consisted of 28 ships of the line, among which were four ships of 112 guns; besides these, they had six ships of the line stationed in the Mediterranean, and a strong fleet in America.

"It is a question worthy of discussion (says the above writer) whether Spain ought to aim at being distinguished as a naval power. Should she adhere to the colonising system, a powerful navy will be needful to protect her commeroe, and secure her monopolies; but then it should be enquired, if the proportion of trade obtained, beyond what she would enjoy if these distant provinces were free, pays the expence of arming in times of peace, or indemnifies her for all the commercial wars she may be engaged in, to support her trade.

The three divisions, in Europe, of the navy of Spain, are not the only places where ships of war are built. There are dock-yards in the Havannah, and a fund of 700,000 piastres was some time since established to carry on the works.

Spain and her colonies might furnish her navy with all the ship-timber necessary for that purpose. There are great quantities in the mountains of Asturia and Navarre; and particularly in the Pyrenees on the side of Arragon and Catalonia, there is a species of pine more solid and durable than oak. The plain of Cuba contains many cedars, although it has been thought exhausted by the quantities drawn from the country adjacent to the coast. In those of Cumana there is timber, likewise, fit for ship-building. But Spain has not derived all the advantages she might have done from these resources, and constantly depends on the northern states, at least for a supply of masts. From the account given to the public by the bank of S. Charles, for the year 1785, it appears, that upwards of 8,500,000 reals were paid, that year, for masts alone, imported from the North. They are still nearer the time of being independent of other powers for the hemp necessary for their navy. This they received for many years from the North; but at present, most of the cordage, cables, and sail-cloth, used in Spain, are made from hemp grown in the country.

The Spaniards have also adopted, from the English, the method of sheathing the bottom of their men of war with copper; but, for want of knowing how to prepare the copper from Mexico, they have hitherto imported all their sheets of that metal from Trieste and Sweden.

All these circumstances prove, that Spain possesses within herself every thing necessary to her navy; and that, after having long neglected these benefactions of nature, she now makes successful efforts to render it independent of other nations.

CHAP. XXIII. The Bull-fights.

THE bull-fights principally seem to be some remains of barbarism in the Spaniards, but at the same time they are more susceptible of apology. These combats, to which the Spanish nation has the strongest attachment, though highly repugnant to the delicacy of the rest of Europe, are considered by the Spaniards as means of preserving in the nation the energy by which it is characterised. "For my part (says Bourgoanne) though I wish to respect a taste by no means in unison with my own, I have never been able to comprehend what relation there is to strength and courage in a spectacle where those present are exposed to no danger, and in which the actors prove, by the rarity of accidents, that the hazards they run, are not of a nature to excite much concern." "Whatever may be said to the contrary, (says the above writer) accidents, are very rare. The cavaliers, who are thrown, sometimes receive contusions, but, during almost four years that I was present at their bull-fights, I knew but one that died of his wounds. A priest, however, provided with the viaticum, and holy oils, is always present, in a kind of latticed box, a precaution, notwithstanding its inutility, that has been kept up merely by the force of custom.

The price of admission varies very much, according as the places are covered or exposed, in the sun or in the shade. A box for the day, which will conveniently accommodate eight or ten people in the shade, will cost £3. 12s. but in the sun only half that sum; and, between both, £2. 8s. Fashionable people take a box. A seat, if covered, in the shade, and in the front bench, costs 7s. 3d. for the day; but a back seat in these covered benches, on the sunny side of the theatre, is not quite half that sum. The cheapest seat for the day, exposed to all the inclemency of the weather, to rain, if it should rain, and to the overwhelming heat of the summer's sun, is something more than 1s. 2d.

The stated expences are enormous. At Madrid they are calculated at from three to £400; the persons who fight the bulls receiving from three to £15 each. The average receipts are stated at near £700. The balance forms the principal funds for the support of the General Hospital.

Bull-fights are mostly given in summer, because spectators may then remain in the open air; and in that season of the year the bulls are more vigorous. There are 20 benches round the circle, and that only which is most elevated is covered. The boxes are in the upper part of the edifice. In some cities, as in Valladolid, where there are no particular places set apart for the combat, the great square is converted into a theatre for the purpose. The balconies of the different stories are continued across the ends of the streets which there terminate. The sight of the people, of every class, assembled round the square, impatiently expecting the signal of battle, and exhibiting in their countenance every sign of joy, has in it something interesting, if not pleasing.

The exhibition begins by a kind of procession round the square, in which the champions make their appearance, as well those on horseback as those on foot; after them come two alguazils, gravely advancing, in wigs and black robes, who go to the governor for an order to begin. The signal is immediately given. The animal, until then shut up in a kind of cabin, the door of which opens into the circle, is let out.

The bull, on his appearance, is received and stunned with the cries and shouts of the people. He has first to combat with the horsemen (Picadorres) who, cloathed after the ancient manner of the Spaniards, wait for him, with long lances. This exercise, which requires address, strength and courage, has nothing in it degrading. Formerly the first nobility did not disdain to take a part in it; at present even some hidalgos solicit the honor of fighting on horseback, and are sometimes previously presented to the people, under the auspices of a patron, who is generally one of the principal persons of the court. The bull, without being provoked, frequently attacks them, which, when it happens, gives the spectators a high opinion of his courage. But if the animal is pacific, disconcerted, and cowardly, runs round the circle, avoiding his persecutors; murmurs and hissings resound throughout the theatre: all those within whose reach he passes, load him with blows and execrations. It seems as if he were a common enemy, who had a great crime to expiate, or a victim whose sacrifice is of consequence to all the people. If nothing can rouze his courage, he is judged unworthy of being tormented by men, and the repeated cries of petros, petros, bring on him new enemies.

Great dogs are then let loose upon him, who seize him by the neck and ears. The animal now finds the use of his natural weapons. The dogs, thrown up in the air, fall stunned, and sometimes lacerated, upon the ground; but they rise, renew the combat, and commonly overpower their adversary, who thus perishes ignobly. If he presents himself with a good grace, the first act of the tragedy belongs to the combatants on horseback; this is the most animated, but the most disgusting part of the whole. The animal then falls furiously upon the innocent horse, and generally gores his sides, and throws him and his rider on the ground.

The latter then is in imminent danger, until the combatants on foot, called chulos, come to his assistance, and provoke the bull, by shaking before him stuffs of different colours. But it is not without danger to themselves that they save the dismounted horseman. The bull sometimes pursues them, and they then have need of their utmost agility. They frequently escape him by letting fall the stuff, which is their only weapon, and upon which the fury of the deceived animal exhausts himself. But it sometimes happens he is not thus to be imposed upon; and the champion has no other resource than leaping over the barrier, six feet high, which forms the interior of the circle. In some places there are two barriers, but where there is but one, the bull makes efforts to leap it, which he sometimes accomplishes. The alarm of the nearest spectators may easily be imagined, and their precipitation in retiring, and crowding upon the upper benches, becomes more fatal to them than the fury of the animal; who, finding himself hampered in the narrow and uneven space, rather thinks of saving himself than satisfying his vengeance. Except in these cases, which are rare, the bull returns to the charge.

When it has been judged he is sufficiently tormented by the combatants on horseback, these withdraw, and leave him to the champions on foot, called banderillos, who meet him, and, the moment he attacks them, stick into him, two by two, a banderilla, ornamented with little streamers of stained paper. The fury of the bull is redoubled; he roars, and his vain efforts render more acute the darts which have been lodged in him. This last torment gives a fine opportunity for the display of the agility of his new adversaries.

When the vigour of the bull appears almost exhausted, and the blood gushes from every wound, the President then gives the signal for his death, which is announced by the sound of drums and trumpets. The matador advances, and is seen alone in the circle. In one hand he holds a long knife, in the other a kind of flag, which he waves before his adversary. Thus together they stop, and observe each other. The impetuosity of the bull is several times avoided by the agility of the matador, and the pleasure of the spectators rendered more lively by their suspense. Sometimes the animal remains immoveable, he scrapes the ground with his feet, and seems to meditate vengeance. The bull in this situation, and the matador, who discovers his intention, and carefully observes his slightest motion, form a picture, which an able pencil might not disdain to delineate. At length the matador gives the fatal blow; and, if the animal immediately falls, the triumph of the conqueror is celebrated by a thousand exclamations; but if the blow be not decisive, their murmurs are not less numerous. The matador, whose address was about to be extolled to the skies, is considered as a clumsy butcher. He instantly endeavours to recover from his disgrace, and disarm the severity of his judges. At last he gives a better directed blow. The animal vomits streams of blood, and, struggling with death, staggers and falls, while his conqueror becomes intoxicated with the applause of the people. The bull is then tied by the horns, and ignominiously dragged from the circle he has just honoured, leaving nothing but the traces of his blood, and the remembrance of his exploit, which is soon effaced by the appearance of his successor. On each of the days dedicated to these feasts are sacrificed, at least at Madrid, six bulls in the morning, and 12 in the afternoon. The names of the combatants of each are previously announced in the public prints.

The day on which these bull-fights are celebrated is a day of rejoicing for the whole district, and for ten or 12 leagues round. The artist who can scarce provide for his existence, has always a surplus to expend on this spectacle. "Whatever they may have been in former times (says Swinburne) they are certainly but a poor exhibition at present, though the crowds of people assembled in a circle, and agitated in a most tumultuous manner, form an interesting and curious spectacle. None of the royal family ever appear at these favourite amusements of the Spanish nation; the nobility no longer pique themselves in these rough exercises; and the fair condescend to yield up their hearts and persons to those that have given no proofs of their prowess, but in combats of a softer nature.

The reigning Monarch, who endeavours to polish the manners of his subjects, has confined the number of bull-fights to those of which the produce serves to the support of some charitable institution. The combats, by this means rendered less frequent, will perhaps lose, by degrees, a part of their attraction, till circumstances shall permit them to be entirely abolished.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE KINGDOM OF PORTUGAL, From BARETTI, FIELDING, and others.

CHAP. I. Country, Climate, Mountains, Rivers, &c.

THIS country was formerly called Lusitania, but its boundaries then were very different from what they are at present. The name of Portugal is by some thought to signify Portus Gallus, or Portus Gallorum, from the great number of French who came to the city of Porto, on the river Douro, to assist the Christians against the Moors. Others, with more probability, derive it from a town on the river Douro, by the ancients called Cale, but by the moderns changed to Gaya. Opposite to this place some of the inhabitants afterwards built a new town with a harbour, and gave it the name of Portucale, or the harbour of Cale, which by uninterrupted prosperity, proved the origin of the present flourishing city of Porto; and from hence the whole country has received the name of Portugal.

This kingdom, which is the most western part of Europe, is bounded on the south and west by the Atlantic ocean; and on the north and east by Spain. Its length, from Valencia, the most northern town, to Sagnes, the most southern, near Cape S. Vincent, is about 300 miles; and its greatest breadth, from Peniche, a sea-port, in Estremadura, to Salvaterra, on the frontiers of Spain, is about 100 miles.

The ancient inhabitants of this country were the Turdetani. The Carthaginians and Romans successively possessed Lusitania, as it was then called; the latter being driven out by the Suevi, who did not enjoy it long, they being, in their turn, conquered by the Goths, who kept possession of this country and Spain, till they were driven out by the Moors. It was afterwards taken from them by the Christians, of Gothic extraction.

The climate of Portugal is much more temperate than that of Spain, although with some variation in the different provinces. The northern parts experience a kind of painful cold in winter, chiefly owing to the heavy rains which fall in that season. In the southern parts of Portugal the summer heats are very violent. Both winter and summer, however, are very supportable; cooling sea-breezes refreshing the air, during the latter season, and the spring is extremely delightful.

This country is in many parts mountainous. From the mountains issue several streams, and small rivers, which fertilize the vallies and fields; and either join the greater rivers in their course, or discharge themselves separately into the sea. The largest and principal of these are the following:

The Minho, having its source in Gallicia, and emptying itself into the Western or Atlantic ocean, not far from the town of Caminha.

The Lima, by the ancients called also Lethe, or the River of Forgetfulness. The Turduli and Celtae, after losing their general, settled on the banks of this river, as if they had totally forgot their own country. This also takes its source in Gallicia, falling into the sea, below Viana.

The Douro, at the mouth of which stands the city of Oporto, so famous for its red wine. The source of this river is in Old Castille. The waters of it are said formerly to have contained so much gold, that John III. had a sceptre made from the gold found in it.

The Tagus has its source in the frontiers of Arragon. This is the largest and principal river in the whole kingdom. In Portugal it is joined by several rivers, widening greatly towards its mouth, so as to form several islands, and a considerable harbour at Lisbon, a little beyond which it discharges itself into the sea. In some places it overflows, and increases the fertilty of the adjacent country. This river also affords gold.

The Guadiana, in Latin the Anas, rises in New Castille, and, entering Bagadoz in Portugal, loses itself in the sea, near Ayrmonte and Castro Maxim. Its name signifies the river Anas, Guadi, in the Moorish tongue, denoting a river.

All these rivers abound in fish, and the three principal, the Douro, the Tagus, and the Guadiana, divide the kingdom into three parts.

The most remarkable mountains are the Sierra d' Estrella, and the rocky mountain of Cintra. The former, called by the ancients, Mons Herminius, lies between the provinces of Beires and Tralos Montes: on the top of this mountain are two large lakes, one of which is said to be unfathomable, and is supposed to have a communication with the sea, from wrecks of ships having been found in it, and from its water being always rough and agitated when the adjoining ocean is so. Cinta, called by the ancients Promontorium Lunae, or the Mountain of the Moon, is situated upon a point of land, five leagues to the westward of Lisbon, and called by the English sailors, the Rock of Lisbon. On this promontory is a monastery, hewn out of the solid rock. "When we came in view of this mountain, (says Barretti) I was told by one of the sailors, it was the custom to duck every person in the sea, on his first sight of this rock, except he paid forfeit for some other to undergo the operation in his stead.

On the highest pinnacle of this mountain the ancients built a temple, dedicated to the Moon, under the appellation of Cynthia, from whence comes the modern appellation of Cintra: and there is certainly not a spot on the globe where astronomical observations might be made to more advantage; whether we consider the great height, and serenity of the atmosphere, or the extensive horizon, joined to the most commanding and unbounded prospect of the Atlantic ocean.

Upon this mountain are the remains of a palace belonging to the Moorish kings. There are still three of its halls to be seen. The ceilings are divided into small compartments, having animals painted on them. One ceiling contains nothing but swans, another nothing but stags, and the third nothing but magpies. Neither are the attitudes varied. Each swan has a golden chain round his neck. Every stag supports a coat of arms on his back; and the magpies have the words per ben written over them. Upon the adjacent hills are a great number of villas belonging to the Portuguese nobles, and the English merchants. Not far from the base of the mountain, is a spot of ground of about three miles in length, and one in breadth, entirely planted with oranges and lemons, whose flowers, when they are in bloom, perfume a vast tract of country. It is called the valley of Collares, and compared to the garden of Eden from its luxuriance.

The mountains of Portugal are some of the most barren on the continent, except towards the base, where they are in general well planted with vine-yards, which yield great quantities of excellent wine. Some mineral springs have been discovered in this country, but they are not made any use of, excepting the baths of Caldas in Estremadura, which are famed for their virtues in venereal cases. Though these baths are in so much repute, the accommodations to be met with at them, are but very indifferent. They lie 15 leagues north of Lisbon.

Although the soil be very fruitful, so much is agriculture neglected here, that above half the country lies waste; and the inhabitants are supplied with a great part of their corn by importation. Portugal, however, abounds in excellent wine and oil; the greatest part of the oil is made in the province of Alentejo. Olive trees thrive better near the sea, than up in the country. Here is also great plenty of fine honey, and consequently of wax. The best honey, which is found in the fields, is almost of a white colour, and of a most agreeable flavour; and the wild honey here is more agreeable to the taste, than that of other countries. Portugal also produces abundance of lemons, pomegranates, oranges, figs, raisins, almonds, chesnuts, and other fine fruits. It has likewise variety of sea and river fish, and large quantities of salt. Their sweet oranges are said to be some of the best in Europe. As Portugal is not without excellent pastures, the graziery in some places is very considerable, and an uncommon number of sheep and cattle may occasionally be seen; but in general it is at so low an ebb, that the greatest part of their oxen come from Spain. Their horses are not large, but very fleet. The Portuguese, however, breed more asses than horses, the latter being clandestinely imported from Spain. There is scarce any country where more marmalade is made, both of the white and red sort, as likewise great quantities of odoriferous waters.

CHAP. II. Of the Cities.

THE whole kingdom contains six provinces, 19 civdades or cities, and 527 villas or smaller towns. The number of inhabitants may be pretty nearly computed, and is calculated at 2,000,000 of people. Of its cities we shall notice Lisbon and Operto, which are the two principal ones.

Lisbon, the metropolis of the kingdom, extends from east to west along the river Tagus, near its influx into the sea; resembling an amphitheatre, and containing within its circuit seven mountains. The length of the whole city, is indeed, little short of two miles, and its breadth is inconsiderable. The vallies of these mountains, form streets of above a mile in length; but most of them are very narrow, ill paved, and dirty; and many of them also steep and troublesome.

Though Lisbon, (says Fielding) in his account of this city, is said to be built on the same number of hills as ancient Rome; yet these do not all appear from the water; on the contrary, one sees from
References

- 1 Royal Exchange

- 2 Custom House

- 3 The Ch•••iers

- 4 〈◊〉 & Hotel of y• Mi••

- 5 The Castel

- 6 St. Clara

- 7 M••• St. Francis

- 8 〈◊〉 Place

- 9 Wind Mills

- 10 The 〈◊〉

- 11 The 〈◊〉

- 12 〈◊〉 Borough

- 13 T•i••i•y's •eligi••••

- 14 St. Isabel

- 15 N.S. of Boa Morte

- 16 College of the Nobles

- 17 N.D. of Neo•••idades

- 18 The City's Gate

- 19 Alex••••ra Bridge

- 20 N.D. of the Pr•••res

- 21 Buenosaires Mill

- 22 A. Estrella

- 23 St. Jono of Ca••das

- 24 St. Seba••iao of •••reira

- 25 St. Anthony Capuchire

- 26 St. Ann's Place

- 27 Italian's Theater

- 28 The Hospitall

- 29 St. Dominican

- 30 Portuguese Theater

- 31 St. Pierre D. Alcantara

- 32 St Roch

- 33 The Trinity

- 34 The Carmes

- 35 N.D. of Loreto

- 36 The St. Sacrement

- 37 The Politeness

- 38 The Je••s

- 39 St. Benoit

- 40 French Religious

- 41 English Religious

- 42 Religious of the Sacrement

- 43 St. •ranes of Paula

- 44 Military Hospital

- 45 St. Therese

- 46 Hope Convent

- 47 Santus

- 48 St. John Nepomucena

- 49 The St. Martirs

- 50 St. Catherine

- 51 St. Pauls

- 52 Irish Dominican

- 53 The Magdalen

- 54 St. Anthony

- 55 Enchant Cathederal

- 56 The Mercy

- 57 Limo••ro Prison

- 58 St. Vincente of Fora

- 59 St. Lawrence

- 60 N.D. of the Grace

- 61 N.D. of the P••ka of the French

- 62 Royal Foundary

- 63 St. Sangrace

- 64 Italian Capuchins

- 65 The Mother of God

- 66 Ribeira or General City Market

- 67 Corn Magazine

PLAN of the City of LISBON.

thence one vast high hill and rock, with buildings arising one above another, and that in so steep, and almost perpendicular a manner, that they all seem to have but one foundation.

As the houses, churches, convents, &c. are large, and all built with white stone, they look very beautiful at a distance; but as you approach nearer, all idea of beauty vanishes. While surveying the prospect of this city, which bears so little resemblance to any in England, a reflection occurred to me, that if a man was suddenly to be removed from Palmyra hither, and should take a view of no other city, in how glorious a light would the ancient architecture appear to him? and what desolation and destruction of arts and sciences would he conclude had happened between the several aeras of these cities?

All the streets (says Costigan) laid out and built since the earthquake, in 1755, are strait, regular, and mostly spacious, running at right angles to each other; but the houses are in general too high in proportion to the width of the streets; for which reason, the falling of the houses upon the first great shock of any future earthquake, must inevitably bury under their ruins, those who shall be able to escape into the streets.

To form some connected idea of its situation, imagine an extent of shore upon a spacious river, capable of receiving every kind of shipping, and pouring its waters immediately into the Atlantic, with regard to its local situation, far preferable to every other on the continent of Europe, for the most extended traffic with the whole continent of America.

Lisbon, (says Twiss) is pretty nearly in the same ruinous state it was in after the earthquake in 1755. There are many new buildings carrying on, but the streets are yet, in various places, stopped up with the ruins occasioned by that calamity. This city is built on seven steep hills, and the streets are very badly paved with small sharp stones, which renders walking almost impracticable; and at night, as there is no kind of light in these streets, it would not be prudent for a stranger to walk out alone. The houses are generally two stories high, sometimes three, with no other chimney but that of the kitchen; they are built of a kind of half marble, with iron balconies, and wooden latices to the ground floor, but they are not remarkable for architecture.

The new streets are built on the spot where the royal palace stood before it was demolished by the earthquake. On each side of these new streets, is a foot-path, elevated somewhat above the pavement, and defended from carriages by stone posts. These houses are four and five stories high. The exchange is finished, and is near the river, with porticos under which the merchants assemble. This building forms one side of an intended square, in the midst of which is to be placed an equestrian statue of the late king. The pedestal is of a single stone, and required 80 yoke of oxen to drag it from the quarry, about two miles distant from the spot where it now is.

The King's palace stands on the river, and is both spacious and convenient. On the east side of it is a large square for the bull fights; and not far from it are the naval magazines. The arsenal is a very large building: near it stands the fish market, which is superior to those in Holland. It is plentifully supplied with fish, most of them unknown in England; but with neither salmon nor cod: the former of which the inhabitants procure from Oporto, by men employed for the purpose, who perform the journey in four days on foot, taking the shortest route, without regarding the common roads, and deliver each fish at Lisbon for a moidore. The John-dory is to be met with larger here, than in the western coast of England; as likewise are red mullets. The conger eels are very large, and the scates will sometimes measure seven feet from the head, to the extremity of the tail. Near this market are also sold vegetables, fruits, tortoises, monkies, parrots, and Brazil birds.

The churches of Lisbon are in general very fine; but that belonging to the Patriarchate is of astonishing magnificence. The very ornaments and plate in it containing the treasure of several Brasil fleets. The pomp assumed by the Patriarch on festivals, surpasses even that of the Pope, if we except only the college of cardinals.

The convents and colleges are fifty in number; 32 for monks, and 18 for nuns. The garden of the convent Das Necessidades, immediately under the hill of Buenos Aynes, is a very fine one, and is open to the decent part of the public. In one of the suburbs of Lisbon, is a convent, over the door of which the arms of England and Portugal are hewn in stone, party per pale, the lion and unicorn for supporters, with the royal crown on the top. One of these convents is called the English nunnery, because no person is admitted into it, who is not born of English parents. Any lady left destitute in England, and willing to devote herself to chastity and retirement, need not fear the approaches of real want for the remainder of her life, if she once gets admittance here. The number of the nuns amounts to 22 or 23, and it is the chief anxiety of this little community, to keep the number complete, lest government should introduce any Portuguese among them, which might destroy the harmony of the society.

The King allows them such a sum as furnishes them all the necessaries of life. The minute superfluities, called by the French douceurs, so indispensable to render existence comfortable, are left to their own industry. These they procure, partly by work, and partly by trifling presents often returned with liberality.

Whoever can speak English, be he catholic or protestant, has a kind of right to visit them at any hour of the day, and all their visitors are treated by them with such endearing kindness, that their parlatory is scarce ever empty.

Nuns in all countries are soft and obliging speakers, but these (says Baretti,) are the softest and most obliging that ever I met with. Not a syllable issued from their lips, that was not dictated by modesty and meekness, humility and benevolence. Their virtue is to all appearance, without the least alloy; but were they in reality different from what they appear, still the strong appearance of their innocence and goodness is irresistibly attracting.

Baretti relates an anecdote of the abbess of this nunnery, Lady Hill, which deserves to be recorded, as shewing what fidelity to an onerous engagement was found in a female breast. This lady took the veil here, from her circumstances, perhaps, not permitting her to make a more agreeable choice. Soon after a large estate in Ireland devolved to her, as next of kin by the death of a relation who died intestate.

To get possession of this estate, without her going to Ireland, was thought difficult, and subject to much inconvenience. Her case, therefore, was represented to the Patriarch, who alone had the power to dispense with her vow of constant confinement; and the Patriarch, by no means a rigid bigot, upon a simple promise of returning, gave her leave to secularize her dress and depart. She did so, went to Ireland, took possession of the estate, and found herself at once in a condition to live at ease and even in splendour in her native country.

The temptation of staying where she was, it must be allowed, was almost irresistible, especially when it is added, that she was handsome and not yet 23. However, if she was tempted, she was tempted in vain; for she sold the estate as speedily as she could, and faithful to her vow and her promise, hastened back to the nunnery with the money, which she laid out in such a manner, as contributed much to the ease and convenience of her beloved community. This was done by a woman! Would any friar in similar circumstances, have behaved so nobly, and returned to his less heavy fetters, after so lucky an escape? Her companions, struck with admiration as well as gratitude, chose her immediately for their superior, and never after ceased to pay her the veneration so indisputably due to her unshaken virtue.

There is a theatre in this city for Italian operas; the principal female singer in which, (says Twiss)) appeared daily on the stage, bedecked with jewels to the amount of 3 or 4,000 pounds. The other theatre is for Portuguese plays; there are four rows of boxes, and 27 boxes in each row. The Italian house is nearly of the same size. The seats in the pit are appropriated solely to the men. The admittance money to the opera is something more than half-a-crown.

The British factory have two long rooms here, in which they assemble twice a week during the winter, to dance and play at cards. Any British stranger who does not intend to reside six months in Lisbon, is admitted gratis to these assemblies; but the subscription for residents is seven moidores for each room. These societies have since been united, and a large room is built for that purpose. During the winter, there are four grand balls with suppers, to which many of the Portuguese nobility are invited.

There a•• no news-papers or gazettes printed in the Portuguese language; these having been prohibited in 1763. The English, French, and Spanish, are to be seen in the coffee houses, of which two are extremely elegant, especially that of Casaco, which is pannelled with looking glasses.

It is very difficult to ascertain the number of inhabitants in Lisbon: the different foreign factories not being numbered with the natives. The English factory alone, is computed at 600 souls. The Dutch and German factories consist also of a very great number of persons.

Previous to the earthquake, the attestations sent to Rome in order to procure bulls, assigned 600,000 inhabitants to the metropolis. The earthquake, which happened on the first of November 1755, is said by some, to have destroyed 15,000 persons, by others 24,000, by others 70,000; indeed it is impossible to calculate this loss with exactness. Lisbon may certainly be classed at present among the first cities for size and populousness, and possibly may be ranked as the fourth, the other three being London, Paris, and Naples.

The King had two palaces in Lisbon, and they were both destroyed. Yet none of the royal family perished. They were going from Lisbon to Belem, and at the time were in a part of the road where there was no house near. Had they remained a quarter of an hour longer in Lisbon, or arrived a quarter of an hour sooner in Belem, it is probable they would have perished, as the royal palace at Belem was likewise destroyed. King, Queen, Princesses, and all their attendants were obliged to encamp in the neighbouring fields; and the British envoy, who was there at the time, wrote over to the ministry, that five days after the earthquake, he went to Belem to pay his respects to them, but that the Queen sent him word she could not receive him, as she was in a tent, and in no condition to be seen. Imagine what the misery of the people must have been, when even the royal family suffered so much.

Nor must we forget to mention the universal conflagration that followed the earthquake. This misfortune fell out at ten o'clock in the forenoon, that is, when all the kitchen fires were lighted against dinner time, and all the churches illuminated in honour of the day. The fires in the kitchens, and the lights in the churches, rolled against the combustible matters that were in their way, and the ruined town was presently in flames. Lisbon is furnished with water by the means of aqueducts; but the aqueducts were broken by the concussion, so that little or no water was to be had. Yet had it been ever so plentiful, the town would not have escaped the conflagration, because every one ran away to the fields, and other open spaces; and thus more loss was occasioned by the fire, than by the earthquake; as it consumed every thing the people had in their houses, which might in a great measure have been dug out of the ruins, if it had not been consumed by the fire. What a spectacle for so many hundred thousand people, to see all their houses in flames at once!

The English factory has a burying-ground in one of the skirts of the city, planted with walks of cypress-trees, under which are the graves, "where, (says Twiss) I had the mortification to see many marble monuments with long, pompous, flattering inscriptions, erected to the memory of some of the merchants, their wives, and their children; whilst the great author of Tom Jones is interred in this burying-ground, without even a stone to indicate that 'Here lies Henry Fielding."

The trade and navigation of this city are so very considerable, that the custom-house, which lies on the Tagus, is the chief source of the King's European revenues. This is the grand magazine of all the goods which the Portuguese bring from their foreign colonies. The harbour is very large, deep, secure, and convenient. It has two entrances, that on the north, called the corredor, lies between the sand-bank, the rock of Cachopos, and Fort St. Julian. The southern entrance, which is much broader and more convenient, is between Cachopos and Fort S. Lawrence.

The Tagus is navigable but a little way above Lisbon, occasioned by its running between inaccessible rocks; and its current is broken by many rapid cataracts. A company of Dutchmen, in the reign of Charles II. offered to cut roads over the rocks, and to make dykes and sluices, which would facilitate the passage of boats from Lisbon quite to Madrid, provided the revenue was given them, which amounted from taxes levied on goods thus to be conveyed by water.

Several councils were in consequence held at Madrid and Lisbon; the conclusion of their deliberations was, 'If God had been willing to have this river navigable, he did not want the assistance of man to render it so; because he was able to produce that great effect by a single fiat. This as he had not done, it followed that he did not think proper to do it so; that it would be contradicting his providence to endeavour to rectify what he appeared to have left imperfect, for reasons best known to himself.'

Thus vanished this useful project, in consequence of the philosophical determination of these councils.

A similar mode of reasoning seems to be adopted by the people of Minorca, who never prune a tree, the vine excepted, thinking it irreligious, in some degree, to presume to direct its growth; and if any stranger should express his wonder that they forbear this useful practice, and inform them of the advantages attending it in other countries, their answer is—'God knows best how a tree should grow.'

This city is walled round, having 77 towers on the walls, and 36 gates. In the centre of this capital, on one of the mountains, stands a citadel which commands the whole place, and has caverns in it, where four regiments of foot are constantly quartered. Close by the sea, at the distance of about 12 miles from the city, both the entrances to the harbour are defended by two forts. The river here is not above two miles over, though it widens by degrees towards Lisbon, where it is at least ten miles broad. Between Lisbon and these forts stands another fort, called Fort Belem, or Belleisle, which commands the entrance into the city, and where all the ships coming up the Tagus, must give an account of themselves. The prospect at the entrance of the Tagus, from the sea, cannot be exceeded. The buildings on the shore, near Belem, which is the royal residence, appear, many of them, to be of noble construction; they are all white on the outside, with lattices and window-shutters painted green, which have a fine effect from the river. Many of the houses have gardens and terraces, ornamented with vases, statues, turrets, and obelisks, and with so many trees round them, that the coup d'aeil is rendered one of the grandest and most picturesque imaginable.

About 15 leagues to the north-west of the mouth of the harbour, are the Burlings, as they are called in the charts. They consist of abundance of little rocky islands, a little distant from the shore, three of them only shewing themselves above water.

Here the Portuguese maintain a kind of garrison, if we may allow it that name. It consists of malefactors, who are banished hither for a term, for divers small offences. A policy which they may have copied from the Egyptians, as we may read in Diodorus Siculus. That wise people, to prevent the corruption of good manners by evil communication, built a town on the Red Sea, whither they transported a great number of their criminals, having first set an indelible mark on them, to prevent their returning and mixing with the sober part of the citizens.

At this place, called by Fielding, the castle of Belleisle, we were saluted with a gun, which was a signal to pass no farther till we had complied with certain ceremonies, which the laws of this country require to be observed by all ships which arrive in this port. We were obliged then to cast anchor, and expect the arrival of the officers of the customs, without whose passport no ship must proceed farther than this place.

Here likewise we received a visit from one of those magistrates of health before-mentioned. He refused to come on board the ship, till every person in her had been drawn up on deck and personally viewed by him. "This occasioned some delay on my part (says Fielding) as it was not the work of a minute, to lift me from the cabin to the deck. The captain thought my particular case might have been excused from this ceremony, and that it would be abundantly sufficient if the magistrate, who was obliged afterwards to visit the cabin, surveyed me there. But this did not satisfy the magistrate's strict regard to his duty. When he was told of my lameness, he called out with a voice of authority —'Let him be brought up;' and his orders were presently complied with. He was indeed a person of great dignity, as well as of most exact fidelity in the discharge of his trust. Both which are the more admirable, as his salary is less than £30 English per annum.

Before a ship has been visited by one of these magistrates, no person can lawfully go on board her, nor can any one depart from her. This I saw exemplified in a remarkable instance. A young lad, one of our passengers, was here met by his father, who, on the first news of the captain's arrival, came from Lisbon to Belleisle in a boat, being eager to embrace a son whom he had not seen for many years. But when he came along-side our ship, neither did the father dare ascend, nor the son descend, as the magistrate of health had not yet been on board.

Some of my readers will perhaps admire the great caution of this policy, so nicely calculated for the preservation of this country from all pestilential distempers. Others will as probably regard it as too exact and formal to be constantly persisted in, in seasons of the utmost safety, as well as in times of danger. I will not decide either way; but will content myself with observing, that I never yet saw or heard of a place where a traveller had so much trouble given him at his landing as here. The only use of which, as all such matters begin and end in form only, is to put it into the power of low and mean fellows, to be either rudely officious or grossly corrupt, as they shall see occasion to prefer the gratification of their pride or their avarice.

Of this kind likewise is that power which is lodged with other officers here, of taking away every grain of snuff, and every leaf of tobacco, brought from other countries, though only for the temporary use of the person during his residence here. This is executed with great insolence; and, as it is in the hands of the dregs of the people, very scandalously; for, under pretence of searching for tobacco and snuff, they are sure to steal whatever they can find; insomuch that when they come on board, our sailors addressed us in the Covent Garden language, "Pray Gentlemen and Ladies take care of your swords and watches." Indeed I never saw any thing equal to the contempt and hatred which our honest tars every moment expressed for these Portuguese officers.

At Belleisle lies buried Catherine of Arragon, widow of Prince Arthur, eldest son of our Henry VII. afterwards married to, and divorced from our Henry VIII. Close by the church where her remains are deposited, is a large convent of Geronymites, one of the most beautiful piles of building in all Portugal.

Having undergone the inspection of the magistrate of health, I sent my man to bespeak a good dinner, and then to bring a Lisbon chaise with him to the sea-shore. At his return, after keeping me waiting full three hours on the deck, he told me, there was a new law lately made, that no passenger should set his foot on shore without a special order from the Providore; and that he himself would have been sent to prison for disobeying it, had he not been protected as the servant of the captain. He informed me, likewise, that the captain had been very industrious to get this order, but that it was then the Providore's hour of sleep, a time when no man, except the King himself, durst disturb him.

To avoid prolixity, though in a part of my narrative which may be more agreeable to my reader than it was to me, the Providore having at last finished his nap, dispatched this absurd matter of form, and gave me leave to come, or rather be carried, on shore.

What it was that first gave the hint of this strange law it is not easy to guess. Possibly in the infancy of their defection, and before their government could be formed, they were willing to guard against the bare possibility of surprize; of the success of which bare possibility the Trojan horse will for ever remain on record, as a great and memorable example. Now the Portuguese have no walls to secure them, and a vessel of two or 300 tons will contain a much larger body of troops than could be concealed in that famous machine, though Virgil tells us, somewhat hyperbolically, that it was as big as a mountain.

The Portuguese derive the origin of this city from Elisa, a great grandson of Noah, who is said to have been its first founder, and that Ulysses was its restorer. Though this is not very probable, yet it is certain the city was anciently called Ulyssaea, or Ulyssipolis; and hence was changed in time to Olisipo. The Romans, as appears from some ancient inscriptions, gave it the name of Felicitas Julia; but the Goths called it Olisipona, which the Moors altered to Olisibona; whence, in process of time, was formed Lisbon.

Nothing can be more disgusting to a stranger than the filth of the streets in this metropolis of Portugal. In fact, (says Costigan) the streets are never cleaned, although there is an established contract for scavengers. This filth would be much more noisome than it actually is, were not every thing that can be eat up by starving dogs, quickly devoured by swarms of these animals, who live abroad and belong to no one. A fine northern breeze, which springs up about noon, refreshes the parched inhabitants of at least all the higher parts of the city, and carries off the baneful effluvia, thrown even sometimes, during the day, from the windows of the different houses; yet, after all, it is impossible to walk the city without the olfactory nerves being continually saluted with the most disagreeable sensations: accordingly no persons, who can possibly avoid it, ever walk the streets, both on account of the violent heat and the great distance, the city being so exceedingly spread in all directions; so that it is a common observation of the natives, that, except persons of the lowest condition, no person is to be met with on foot, during some hours of the violent heat, but dogs and Englishmen.

Another singular circumstance, very striking to a stranger rambling about this city, is the great number of negroes. Many of these unhappy wretches are natives of Africa, others born either in Portugal or in its ultramarine dominions. No ships arrive from that quarter of the globe without some, and, when in Portugal, they are allowed to marry, not only among themselves, but also with those of a different colour. These cross-marriages (says Baretti) have filled the country with different breeds of human monsters. A black and a white produce a mulatto. Then a mulatto joins with a black or a white, and two other creatures are engendered, called mestices. Then the white mestices join with the black mestices, or with two real blacks, whites or mulattos; and all branch out into so many and various kinds, that it becomes very difficult to distinguish them by peculiar names, though they are easily to be distinguished by their peculiar hues.

To such a degree has the original race of the Portuguese been depraved, that, to be a Blanco, that is, a perfect white, is become a title of honour: so that, when a Portuguese says he is a Blanco, it is not to be understood that he is a white, but that he is a man of honour, a person of family and consequence.

To all these mongrel mixtures may be added the Jewish. Portugal abounds with Jews who personate Christians, and often intermarry with the Portuguese and Negroes. These strange combinations have filled Lisbon with such a variety of uncouth faces, as to make the traveller doubt if he is really in Europe; and, in a few centuries, not a drop of Portuguese blood will be left in the country, but the whole will be corrupted between Jews and Negroes.

To obviate one of these evils, both of which might easily be removed by a secular tribunal, the Inquisition is always on the watch to find out the Jews; who, if discovered, are certain to meet with no mercy from the holy fathers. Let a man but avow himself a Jew, and to be thrown into the flames will be his punishment. This incessant diligence to detect the Jews makes them redouble their arts to conceal themselves; and it is from this circumstance that numbers of persons, of both sexes, and of all ages and situations in life, when they walk about the city, carry with them long rosaries, and may be seen continually muttering Pater-nosters and Ave Marias; that, if Jews, they may be thought Christians; or, if Christians, that they may not be looked upon as Jews.

To judge from the capital, the industry of this nation is not great; almost all the linen, woollen, and silk goods, to be met with in the different shops, are of foreign importation, although they have in their own country, most of the raw materials. Their steel, copper, and brass work is likewise imported from abroad, as are even their shoes, except such as are made by foreigners. French tailors and hair-dressers swarm in Lisbon, as they do in London. Statuaries, architects, and engravers, here never possessed any of the least celebrity. As for painters, they can boast of only one, Alonzo Sanches Coello, a disciple of Raphael, and a favourite of Philip II. who used to call him Titian the Second. He is more known in Italy than Portugal.

The disagreeable sensation to the organs of the ear in this city, by the creaking of the cart-wheels is inexpressible. They are here made out of two boards, nailed together, and clumsily cut, in a circular form. Yet this painful noise might be obviated, if the carmen would grease the axletrees: to this they object, saying the devil would then do mischief to their oxen, and that this noise frightens him away.

Among the charitable institutions worthy of being noticed are the Misericordia and All Saints hospitals. The former has a magnificent church, and is under the direction of the principal nobility. The stewards are chosen annually; the expence of serving that office, to those who would acquire fame, amounts to 4 or 5000l. sterling a year. The funds of this hospital are applied to the relief of such persons as are reduced to indigence, and ashamed to solicit alms. They are likewise appropriated to the portioning of young women, to the relief of prisoners under confinement for debt, and to assist them in compounding with their creditors, that they may obtain their freedom. Priests are also appointed by those who have the direction of this charity, to attend and administer consolation to such criminals as are under sentence of death. In short, they succour and relieve all persons who not abandoned themselves to vice, when labouring under sickness or penury.

The hospital of All Saints is one of the largest and best endowed in Europe. Here they receive and administer relief to persons of all nations and religions. The sick, the lame, the lunatic, the foundling; all find an asylum in this hospital; and, when dismissed, have money given them to subsist upon, till they are otherwise provided for.

The country about Lisbon is agreeably diversified with groves of orange and lemon trees, intermixed with olives and vineyards. The roads are bordered with aloes, which make an uncommon appearance to a native of a colder climate, when in flower; the stem being then 12 or 14 feet high. These aloes blow every sixth or seventh year. What Brydone says of those in Sicily is likewise just in respect of these: 'As the whole substance of the plant is carried into the stem and flowers, the leaves begin to decay as soon as they have done blowing, and numerous young plants are produced round the roots of the old ones, which wither and die.'

Most of the roads in the environs are paved with large stones. Near the city, in the valley of Alcantara, is situated the celebrated aqueduct, which joins two hills, and supplies the city with water. This aqueduct runs transversely over a valley a quarter of a mile in breadth. The space between the two center pillars is so wide and lofty that a 50 gun ship might pass through with all her sails spread. This building is an erection of the year 1748, and fortunately received little or no damage from the earthquake in 1755. The whole of this immense fabric is built of white marble.

The palace at Belem, about five miles from Lisbon, where the court usually reside, is a very mean wooden edifice, (says Twiss) and has nothing worthy of remark, either on the outside or in the inside. There is not so much as a single picture from any of the Italian schools in the whole kingdom of Portugal. What few pictures there were formerly in Lisbon, were destroyed by the earthquake. Nor are there any statues in Portugal, except two groupes in the royal gardens of this palace, exposed to the air very injudiciously.— These groupes are of two figures each, as large as life, and of white marble. One is the daughter giving suck to her father, and the other is a woman fainting and reclining in the arms of another woman. They are indeed perfectly beautiful, and in good preservation.

Near the palace at Belem is a pillar erected, with an inscription, importing that to be the spot where the late Duke of Aveiro's palace stood; he was executed for having shot at the King, in 1759, and the palace was erased.

There are several magnificent monasteries in the environs of Lisbon, of which it may be proper to give some general account. The first that we shall notice is the royal convent at Mafoa. This pile of buildings contains 37 windows in front, and is nearly a square of 728 feet. The church and the royal apartments take up one half of it, and the convent, the other. The whole of the chief front is as noble as art can make it. The gate in the middle has on each side an insulated column, of a kind of granite, little inferior to the Egyptian. Each column is cut out of a single block, and is about three fathoms in circumference. But, what is most striking, is the ascent to the church▪ This is by a grand flight of semicircular stairs, which projects 152 feet into the square, before the building. Each corner of the chief front supports a dome, in the form of a pavillion. These domes, viewed at a proper distance, have a fine effect, and contrast surprizingly well with the cupola and the four belfries belonging to the church. The roof of the apartments and the church, exclusive of the pavillion, the cupola, and the belfries, is laid out in a kind of terrace, commanding an extensive prospect. The belfries contain 160 bells, of various sizes, which, by the means of clock-work, ring a great number of curious chimes or carillons. The profusion of gold, silver, jewels, and precious marbles is incredible. There are several altars in this church, each as rich as money and workmanship can make them. One altar alone is said to have cost from 50, to 60,000l.

There are two large court-yards in this convent, surrounded (says Baretti) by the finest porticos I ever saw, even much superior to those at Venice; and which support several apartments destined for the officers of state, when the court is there. These apartments, as well as those of their Majesties, form a long range of rooms, communicating with that part of the building allotted to the friars. This consists of three dormitories, a refectory, an infirmary, a kitchen, a library, &c. One of these dormitories may be about 300 common paces in length, and wide enough for ten persons to walk abreast. The cells on each side are, in number, about 600; not low and narrow as in other convents, but spacious and lofty, so that they might each be termed a chamber fit for a R•man prelate to inhabit. The friars are not so numerous as the cells; there are of them only 300 besides 150 lay-brothers. The furniture of- each cell consists of a narrow, uncovered bed, a table, a few chairs, and a shelf for books. The lay-friars have no shelves, few of them being able to read. The refectory is a noble sight. The table that runs through it admits of 150 people on each side; yet there is sufficient space for another, at which the King sometimes dines with his grandees.

As I entered the refectory, (adds Baretti) a little before dinner, the cloth was laid, and I could not help remarking that, between every two friars, there was a jug, containing about two bottles of wine. These jugs were all alike, of white earthen ware, with the King's arms engraved upon them. Close to each mug was likewise placed a trencher of Brazil wood, with half a dozen figs, a couple of bunches of grapes, and two lemons. The rest of the dinner consisted of three good dishes, gras or maigre, according to the day. To every friar a pound of bread is also allotted, with liberty to call for more. When the 300 padres are at dinner, the 150 lay-brothers wait behind them with the greatest respect. It is the King who furnishes them with this food, which makes them all look so florid and so jolly. Such faces (says Baretti) I never saw in my life, not even in the pictures of Paul Veronese, who delighted in painting handsome friars. The maintenance of this religious establishment is said to cost the King about 25,000l. a year. The smallest part of the establishment is the infirmary. But it must be observed, that those friars who are become old or invalids, valids, are sent to some other convents, and young and healthy ones are substituted in their room.

Their library occupies a very large hall, besides another chamber of considerable dimensions. The hall contains about 70,000 volumes, and the chamber about 10,000. Amongst these latter are all the Portuguese books that could possibly be collected. There is scarce a family of any note in the kingdom who cannot boast of an historian. Hence, it is said, arises, that noble elevation of mind, which makes the Portuguese look with the greatest disdain upon all other nations, and despise every thing that is not Portuguese. In this chamber there are books of devotion, and lives of saints, out of number. S. Anthony, alone, has above 100 volumes on these shelves, each relating his exploits in a different manner. No Alexander, no Augustus, no King of Prussia, was ever honoured with so much biography as S. Anthony.

According to the opinion of the friars, the lesser library is much more valuable than the other. In one respect they are right, as duplicates of books in the larger library are to be purchased, but those in the less, being books written in the Portuguese language, are become very scarce since the earthquake. However, the loss will not be very severely felt, there being few writers in that language of any celebrity. The large library is a very good one. Besides a very capital collection of books in the ancient languages, it contains some valuable manuscripts, in Hebrew and Arabic, and some of the friars are men of letters.

Here is a park of very considerable extent, but far from being embellished by that verdure so conspicuous in our English ones, it having very much the appearance of a parched and rocky desart, thinly scattered with trees.

The first stone of this building was laid in 1717; and though above 6000 workmen were employed for more than 20 years, and a considerable number are still occupied upon it, the building is not yet completed.

The occasion of its erection was owing to a vow made by the Archduchess, who was married to John V. On approaching the coast of Portugal, the mountains of Mafra were the first land she saw, and the first favour she solicited of her royal consort was, that he would erect a convent on them to the Virgin Mary and S. Anthony, to whose joint protection she considered herself indebted for having landed safe in Portugal.

About four leagues from Lisbon, is situated the convent of Odivelas, where it is said 300 beautiful nuns formed a seraglio for the late monarch: each of them had one or more lovers, and were the most attracting mistresses of the Portuguese nobility. At present few of them are living, and those that remain are grown old and ugly; so that this place is no longer that scene of debauchery it was formerly. A French writer, speaking of this convent, says, that the famous Portuguese Letters, afterwards translated into French, came from this tender, gallant, and voluptuous monastery.

"I bought in this convent (says Twiss) several work-bags, made of the fibres of aloe-leaves. They cost about a crown; and, when soiled, are cleaned by being washed in lemon-juice and water. Laces, gloves, reins for horses, &c. are made of the same materials.

Near this monastery is another royal convent, in which are 130 monks, who are all noble, and have each a servant, which with the cooks and gardeners, amount to above 300 persons: so that it is not to be wondered at, that it is as difficult to procure an egg or an onion for many miles round, as it would be if one travelled by land from Petersburg to Pekin; for this great gulph swallows up every thing. The revenue of this convent amounts to about 24,000l. a year. In the library are Baskerville's Virgil, and Foulis's Homer, both which were presented to the society by the present Lord Rivers. The kitchen is very large, and the chimney stands in the centre, the funnel of which is 34 feet long, 13 broad, and is supported by eight iron pillars. Under this funnel are a great number of cauldrons of different kinds▪ a small rivulet is made to run through the kitchen, in which are seven cooks constantly employed. The vaults under the convent are filled with various kinds of wines; and in their stables are several hundred mules, for these worthy fathers to ride upon." "This convent, (adds Twiss) is the most magnificent and richest I have seen; and its inhabitants compose the most agreeable body of ecclesiastics that are any where to be met with."

Oporto, the other city we proposed to treat of, and its suburb, Villanova, are each built on a hill, with the Douro between them: a situation much resembling Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and its suburb, Gateshead. There is no bridge over the Douro, because, when the snow melts upon the mountains, this river overflows its banks, and lays the lower part of the city under water, sometimes as much as 12 or 14 feet, running at the amazing rate of 16 miles an hour, and carrying all the vessels to sea, many of which are lost on the sands, or beat to pieces against the shores.

This city was originally called Portucale, or Porto de Cale. It is about three miles distant from the mouth of the river Douro, which here forms a good harbour, though difficult of access, from the rocks and sands forming a bar, which can only be passed at high water. There is a fine quay, which runs along the banks of the river where the shipping lie, so that the merchants may see the vessels load and unload from their windows.

There is also an arsenal, and dock-yards for building and equipping ships of the line. Although the situation of this place is naturally strong and inaccessible by sea, yet for its defence, on the land-side, it has only some ruinous towers, and a small fort with four bastions.

"To walk about this city, (says Costigan) is rather a violent exercise, not one street in it being upon a level, except that where most part of the English inhabit; all the others consist of ascents and descents, some of them so very steep as to make it difficult for any sort of wheel-carriage to get along; for which reason litters, carried between a couple of stout mules are a much safer conveyance. The streets are all paved with broad stones, as are those in Florence.

The boats on the river have an awning like the Venetian gondolas, and are rowed by men standing forward, after the same manner as they row at Venice, and sometimes by one man with a single oar.

The merchants assemble daily in the chief street to transact business; and are protected from the sun by sail cloths, hung across them from the opposite houses.

This city, which for opulence, populousness, beauty and commerce, is the next in the kingdom to Lisbon, contains about 30,000 inhabitants. It has four suburbs and seven parish churches, including the cathedral, one casa da Misericordia, some hospitals, and 12 convents, besides four others without the walls. The most magnificent building is a convent of the Augustins, in which there is a beautiful gallery of very great extent: the church belonging to it, is of a circular form, and very richly ornamented. The church of S. Francisco is full of wooden ornaments, profusely carved and entirely gilt, which has a very disgusting effect. I observed (says Twiss) many letters hanging by threads from the wall, directed to the most glorious S. Francis. As they were all open, I took the liberty of reading some, and found they were only complimentary cards, and letters of thanks, for cures which the writers thought they had received by means of that Saint's interest with the Virgin Mary, &c.

The chief article of commerce in this city, is wine. Twenty-thousand pipes are annually exported. The cost is about 10 or 12 pounds each pipe. Eighty-thousand are the usual annual produce, so that three-fourths are consumed in the country. The merchants here have very spacious wine-vaults, some of which are capable of holding 6 or 7,000 pipes. The inhabitants of half the shops in the city, are coopers, who sell their casks at about a moidore each. Thirty English families reside here, who are chiefly concerned in this commerce. The factory maintains the clergyman, who performs service on Sundays at each house alternately. They have also a burying ground in a field near the town. A British consul likewise resides here. It does not appear that the English merchants in this city, any more than those at Lisbon and Cadiz, associate much with the people of the country. They are represented by Costigan, to be a worthy, friendly, and hospitable set of people; as attentive to their counting-rooms and business every day before dinner, as they are to dressing, cards, and other amusements in the evening: many of them have been 20 or 30 years resident in Oporto, yet know but few words of the language; if they take a trip to any part of the adjacent country on a holiday, it is in parties of pleasure with the ladies, to some spot they have fixed upon, where they send a good dinner before hand; there they dance, eat and drink heartily, without any communication with the inhabitants, who, by their manners and appearance, (adds the above writer) are no great objects of attraction to the generality of Englishmen.

The two cities of Lisbon and Oporto may be justly considered as the two eyes of Portugal, for here centre the whole riches of the country, and all their trade with foreign nations, and their own possessions in the Brasils; upon which last especially depends their whole existence as a people, and the chief support of the throne. A sensible Portuguese writer, whose manuscript performances are in the hands of his friends, but which he dares not offer for publication, compares not unaptly, their whole kingdom, to one of that sort of spiders which has a large body, containing all the substance (the capital) with very long, thin, feeble legs, reaching to a great distance, but which are of no sort of use to it, and which it is hardly able to move.

Were any of us disposed to estimate our felicity according to the goodness or badness of our living, (says Costigan) in speaking of this city, we have as much reason to congratulate ourselves on our arrival here, as we have hitherto had to deem ourselves unfortunate in our journey through the country. Christmas pies, fat turkeys, fine surloins, jellies, and creams of all kinds, and every other delicacy, are to be met with in abundance. The foreign merchants, especially the English, who are by far the most numerous, not only live in affluence themselves, and much better than the same persons would do in London; but the natives follow their example, and live much in the same manner; they mix and communicate more with the foreigners here, than their countrymen do with those established at Lisbon, where, as being the court, it was more natural to expect a disposition to urbanity and mutual intercourse.

CHAP. III. People, Dress, Character, Customs, Manners, &c.

EMANUEL de Farca, a Portuguese writer, in describing the character of his countrymen, says, 'the nobility think themselves gods, and require a sort of adoration; the gentry aspire to equal them, and the common people disdain to be thought inferior to either?' In their persons, the Portuguese bear great resemblance to the Spaniards, except that the latter are more robust, of a larger size, and make better soldiers than those of Portugal. As to the ladies, their complexions are in general of an olive cast; their features are delicate, and their visage thin. Their hair is black and shining, and their eyes of uncommon lustre; nor are they deficient in vivacity. They have likewise the repute of being generous, charitable, and modest.

In another place, describing their persons, (Baretti says) they are in general much fairer than one would expect in so hot a latitude, from which it may be seen very clearly, they do not expose themselves much to the sun. Almost all of them have open and ingenuous countenances. A good contrast to their men, whose skins are rather swarthy, and whose looks are rather sullen and grave, even when they attempt to smile, which they do very frequently. The salutation of men to ladies, consists in a short and quick genuflexion. But this compliment the ladies scarcely return with a nod, especially to their inferiors. The gentlemen embrace each other with great respect, and kiss each other's left shoulder.

The Portuguese, (remarks Baretti) are of a disposition much more amorous than the English. Love is the predominant passion on the Tagus, as liberty is on the Thames. But this generally happens to people of warm climates. In the northern regions, much cloathing as well as firing is necessary to make life pass comfortably; and where cloathing and firing are wanting, a considerable portion of time must be employed in procuring them. This is the reason that in England there are multitudes of people who have never been in love, even once in their lives. In Portugal they are slaves to the god of love, almost from the hour of their birth, to that of their death: and Camoens very justly said, ‘'Fair Venus cherishes the Portuguese.'’

In their devotion, the difference between them and the English is striking. We sit or stand with a composed look, sing our psalms and anthems with an even tone, and scarce any one, not of the sect of methodists, who may be called the Lusitanic part of of the British nation, betrays the least enthusiasm whatever. The Portuguese, on the contrary, are devout to a degree of phrenzy. They are almost all the time upon their knees, they raise their eyes wistfully towards Heaven, sing loud, utter most fervent ejaculations, and repeatedly beat their breasts with their hands. The respect they pay their friars is astonishing. Men, women, and children will eagerly get up, run to them, and humbly kiss their hands, their sleeves, the hem of their garments, or the beads that hang from their waists. When they die, they must be buried in a habit, bought of some friar, whese sanctity was in great repute. As a proof of this, Baretti mentions an impudent Portuguese friar he met with at Venice, who called all the Italians heretics, because they would give him nothing for his old thread-bare cloak, which in Portugal he could have sold for 40 or 50 crowns.

But this devotion of the Portuguese, does not in the least interfere with their love of the other sex, or their love of dancing, of which they are passionately fond. Their dances are not of the cold, insipid, Frenchified kind, but such as are calculated to fill the mind with desire, and the heart with joy.

Thus live the Portuguese in an uninterrupted round of devotion and pleasure. They are neither gluttons nor drunkards, although their country wants neither food nor drink. Their beef and veal are not so good as in England, but their pork, mutton and lamb are excellent; and so are their chickens, fowls, ducks, turkies, and game. As for fish, the Lisbon market is perhaps the most plentifully and most variously supplied of any in Europe, and all their fruit and garden-stuff is superlatively good. How abundant must be their fruit, may easily be conceived, when Twiss assures us, that from a single orange-tree, in a garden belonging to one of the English merchants near Oporto, no less than 16,000 oranges had been gathered in one season.

The poorer sort of people seldom are able to procure flesh, but the better kind keep good tables, and have French cooks. To keep a table, however, (says Baretti) must require a considerable income in Lisbon, if it costs proportionably in a family, to what it does in an inn. The table (he adds) at his auherge, which was far from being sumptuous, cost him upwards of a guinea each day.

Of the manners of living of people of fashion, he pretends to know but little. The inferior classes seem to like a good house if they can get one. As to household furniture, they have no very refined ideas. A hard mattrass in a corner, or a mat, or their own cloaths, answer the purpose of the best down beds; this makes them generally look dirty. Almost any thing will supply the place of victuals; and water is excellent for quenching thirst, especially such good water as they have in Lisbon. In general they are healthy, full of spirits, and live long, if we may judge of the great number of old people we see in their metropolis. Costigan, in his remarks on the lower class of people among the Portuguese, says that 'The benefits of foreign trade, and of the fine and extensive countries possessed by Portugal in Africa; the East, and South America have never yet reached the Portuguese peasant, any farther than by enabling the inhabitants of the two capitals, Oporto and Lisbon, to pay some little advance on the provisions he brings to market. The only foreign luxury he is yet acquanted with, is tobacco; and when his feeble pulse can reach it, he purchases a dried Newfoundland cod-fish; a regale, however, he can seldom aspire to. A piece of bread, made of Indian corn, and a salted pilchard, or a head of garlic to give that bread a flavour, compose his standing dish, and if he can get a bit of the hog, the ox, or the calf he himself fattens, to feast his wretched family at Christmas or Easter, he has reached the pinnacle of happiness in this world; and indeed, whatever he were to possess beyond this habitual penury, would quickly be taken from him; or rather he would willingly part with it to some of the numerous ghostly comforters, with which his country swarms, in order to attain happiness in another state of existence, under their guidance and direction. This he is made to believe is only to be procured by faithfully paying his tithes, by charitable donations to such a convent, or to the shrine and officiating priests of any altar that happens more particularly to be the object of his adoration. If any misfortune has befallen him, he fancies he has been deficient in something essential; his zeal and donations are therefore redoubled. Should he have been successful, the same effects are produced through effusions of gratitude. If he has money to procure admission into a convent for his son or his daughter, this raises the credit of his family for ever; and nothing is wanting to give him a kind of apotheosis in all the convents and country round, but to bequeath at his death what little money he can muster, to be divided among the priests, that they may procure a speedy passage for his soul; through the ordeal fire of purgatory, to the enjoyment of those finely painted scenes, which, like a distant gaudy picture, have been long held out to his fond imagination.'

Such (according to the above writer) is the state of the Portuguese peasantry. We suspect, however, the picture to be too highly coloured; at least that part which regards the artifices of the priests, and that the real cause of their poverty and wretchedness, is the want of internal commerce and manufactures. Whether catholics or protestants, of whatever sort or denomination, the lower order of priests in every country, find some specious pretexts for picking the pockets of that class of people he is describing; but the quantum they obtain from each individual, is seldom of much moment, when compared with their relative income.

The dress of the men among the common people, is a large cloak and slouched hat; under the cloak they commonly wear a dagger, though that treacherous
PORTUGUESE PEASANTS

weapon is prohibited; the blades of some of these will strike through a crown piece. The women wear no caps, but tie a kind of net-work silk purse over their hair, with a long tassel behind, and a ribbon tied in a bow-knot over their fore-head. This head-dress they call redecilla, and it is worn indiscriminately by both sexes. The gentry dress entirely in the French fashion.

Swords are only worn by well-dressed people, and all ornaments of gold or silver lace, or embroidery, are prohibited to be worn on the clothes of the Portuguese of both sexes. Their silk clothes are sometimes elegantly embroidered with silk of a different colour, and many jewels are displayed on gala days. Topazes here are very plentiful and extremely well set, but their silversmiths workmanship is very clumsy.

The ladies wear very large and heavy pendants in their ears: the sleeves of their gowns are wide enough to admit their waist, which, however, seldom exceeds a span in diameter. They wear enormous hoops, and two or three gowns, one over the other, some of which are very richly embroidered, but the uppermost is of a coarse black stuff, and of such length, that when not taken up, it trails a very considerable length on the ground. Their shoes are of black Spanish leather, without heels, so that they appear to glide along, rather than walk. These they wear only within doors, but when they go out, they put on a kind of pattens, or silk sandals, fastened with gold clasps, which raise their feet several inches from the ground, and make their gait appear awkward. Their stays, which have very little bone in them, are high before, but so low behind, that their olive coloured skins would be exposed to view, were their shoulders not well bedaubed with paint. Their hands and feet are small and well proportioned. People of fashion wear very fine linen, but those of the lower class disdaining to wear coarse, wear none at all. Instead of a girdle, the ladies tie a string of relics, or the girdle of some religious order, round their waists, the ends of which reach to the ground, with several knots in them, and to each knot is fastened a diamond, or some other precious stone. In their hair they wear a variety of precious stones, in the form of butterflies and other insects; it is likewise sometimes adorned with feathers and ribbons of different colours, but no kind of lace or muslin headdress is worn in Portugal, except by women very far advanced in years, who wear a fine caul.

In this country, (observes Baretti) as in France and Italy, they have the absurd custom of dressing up their children too much. It is ridiculous to see a little girl decked out with a toupee and a large hoop, or a child in full dress with a bag-wig and sword by his side. In England the sons and daughters of our nobility are not made to look like dwarfish men and women, and this may be the reason that England abounds less with fops and coquets, than either France or Italy.

With respect to the houses of people of fashion, they have generally a long suite of rooms on each floor, running one into another, the floors and ceilings of which are of white plaister, that looks to the eye like polished marble. Their furniture and apartments are changed according to the season of the year. On the lower rooms of their summer apartments, they throw several pails of water every morning, which dries up in the course of half an hour, and leaves a refreshing coolness for the rest of the day. On these floors are spread fine mats, and the walls covered with the same, chair high; above these are placed pictures and looking-glasses, and round the ladies apartments are placed on the mats, cushions of silk or velvet, on which they sit cross legged. In the upper apartments, their hangings, cabinets, paintings, looking-glasses and plate are immensely rich, and the floors are generally covered with Turkey carpets. In winter their beds and hangings are velvet, trimmed with gold or silver lace; but in summer they have no curtains, or only such as are made of coloured gauze to keep out the gnats.

The expences of the interior economy of a Portuguese nobleman's family, are certainly as moderate as they are excessive in every thing which regards exterior parade and ostentation, such as numbers of livery-servants, carriages, mules, and led horses; in short, every thing that can give a stranger an exaggerated opinion of the power, wealth, and authority of the master. The numerous servants are supported by ratios of boiled meat and rice, cut and divided into shares on meat days, and of dry cod-fish and rice on fish-days, and others of abstinence, which return frequently, exclusive of Lent. Wine is seldom wanted, but when asked for, is brought in small quantities from the adjoining tavern; but they drink abundance of fine cold water, and at night the smallest bit of cold meat, or a pilchard, with plenty of excellent lettuce or other sallad, tempered with oil and vinegar, which make almost the universal sauce for every thing, and good bread, serve for supper. In the morning the chief persons of the family generally make their breakfast of chocolate, and that after hearing mass in the family chapel. The great regale and luxury at all hours, is the variety of sweetmeats they keep in store; these serve them as provocations to drink deep draughts of water, which blows them up surprisingly, insomuch that there are many more fat people to be found in Lisbon, than in any other city.

The principal luxury of a Portuguese entertainment, consists in the desert; each of the company takes one or more spoonfuls of liquid sweetmeat, and the more it is charged with sugar, the more relishing it is esteemed: a servant stands behind each chair, with a large tumbler filled with very cold water, which they drink immediately after the sweetmeat. The epicurians and refiners in the pleasure of eating, drink the water slowly, in order to protract the delightful sensation that cold water raises in the palate, when mixed with the sweetmeat it has just before been so strongly impressed with, and which the Portuguese assert, very far exceeds the relish of the finest wine that can be drank. It is true the water-drinkers in Spain, as well as those in Portugal, who, especially among the higher ranks, are by far the majority of both nations, distinguish with wonderful nicety, every gradation of difference, between the respective waters they taste, and which would be totally imperceptible to those, like the English or Germans, and other northern nations, who have their sense of tasting dull and blunted, by the frequent use of wine and other intoxicating liquors.

The dessert is not as in England and in France, set upon the same table with the rest of the dinner, but upon a much smaller, and in another apartment; where the company withdraw to finish their repast. It consists of sweatmeats and fruits. After having partaken of the former, they eat of the different fruits, and drink a glass of Malmsey maidera, set upon the table in small half pint bottles, with very small glasses, the edges of which are generally gilt. This wine, like the sweetmeats, is sweet and luxurious in the extreme.

Costigan, in his sketches of society and manners in Portugal, describing an entertainment at the governor of Elva's, one of the principal cities in the province of Alentego, says, "We arrived at the hour of dinner, (one o'clock) which was then serving up. The Governor's lady was the only woman at table, and had more the appearance of his grand-daughter, than his wife; she was wrapped up in her long baize cloak, but her hair was done up prettily with flowers and topaz combs, and a few diamond sprigs, without any cap. The Governor was also in his cloak. He took his place at the lady's right-hand, and the rest of the company, which was numerous, seated themselves according to their ranks; the Carving knight, a post of honour, still existing at court, and in some families in Portugal, at the lower end of the table, served the company round, who were stiff and ceremonious; neither was the aid of the chearing glass called in, to exhilarate the guests, but it seemed as if the water, of which they took great draughts, produced the same effect. One of the principal guests in particular, swilled down a three-pint tumbler full of the crystal liquor at a draught. At last the Governor called for a wine-glass, into which was poured a thimble-full of that liquor. One of the guests, however, a priest, who seemed to be a wag, (says Costigan) called for wine repeatedly, on which the lady began to rally him, and told him he drank like a Mauregato, or an Englishman; here the Governor calling for another glass of wine, drank to the King of England's health, putting the glass to his lips, but did not taste the liquor either time. The Maurigatos are a fraternity of carriers of goods through many of the interior provinces of Spain; they are the Harrieros Yangueses of Don Quixotte, and remarkable for their fidelity with regard to any trust committed to their care, and for never admitting persons of equivocal character into their society. As soon as the dinner was over, a folding door opened that was behind the lady, and the company passed into the next apartment, where the dessert, consisting of sweetmeats and fruits, was set out on a much smaller table; the company took their seats, and were not crouded; for above half of them had disappeared.

If it should be asked why so great a part of the company, who were officers, retired immediately after dinner, and did not come in to the dessert? To answer that question it must be observed, that there are numbers of books in Portugal, containing regulations for the disciplining, cloathing, and economy of the troops; but there is one, above all others, written many years ago, intitled The Perfect Portuguese Captain, which book is still held in high esteem by the nobility and principal persons of the army, as well as by the different orders of monks and friars; it contains indeed little or nothing concerning the military duty of an officer, but, on the other hand, it is quite the mirror of politeness and decorum. It teaches the officer how many plaits he is to have in his shirt, and how many curls in his wig; the exact breadth of the lace on his coat; how he is to bow and kneel, when he comes into a room, as they did to the lady of the Governor: it explains to the officer, after the most diffuse and edifying manner, all his duty as a Catholic christian; the nature of all the sacraments, and how he is to receive them; compares his kneeling at the altar, to eat the Deity, to the honour of sitting down at table to dine with his general; and it is particularly careful in directing the subaltern and captain how they are to behave in the solemn act; tells them, they are to keep their eyes modestly fixed on the plate or dish immediately before them; that they are to tuck one end of the napkin under their chin, and to place the other under the plate they eat off; that they are to hold the spoon or knife in the right hand, and the fork in the left; with many other directions of equal importance; as soon as dinner is over, and the dessert served, and before the general shall eat his sweetmeat, every subaltern who shall happen to be at table, must rise up and retire; and this was the true reason why so many officers did not come into the dessert.

This humiliating distinction towards subalterns, has its rise from their commission never being signed by the King, till the reform under Count de Lippe, in 1763, and from their having been taken, as they still continue to be, for the most part, from the menial servants of the nobility.

To give some further insight into the characters and manners of people of fashion in Portugal, we shall relate a subsequent visit to the episcopal palace at Elva, (says Costigan) where we were ushered into a large saloon, tolerably well furnished, and hung with crimson damask, in which were some part of the company not already assembled. This bishop boasted that he sprung from a noble family, of English extraction; but, as to his personal character, he was one of the most intriguing, mischievous ecclesiastics any where to be met with; and, though his delicacy pretended to be scandalized at a person of the fair sex coming to visit him from Lisbon; yet he kept a couple of mistresses in the house with him, under the denomination of nieces, to whom we were then going to be introduced. After some time the Bishop made his appearance, preceded by three ecclesiastics and his two nieces: the company paid their respects, and we were presented, and received with great cordiality; salvers of dry sweetmeats, and glasses of water were then offered to the company, after which some bad tea and coffee were handed about; these being removed, the card-tables were placed. It fell to the lot of my friend who accompanied me, an English nobleman, to be partner with one of the nieces, against the governor, who had just then come in, and the bishop. During the course of play he felt some gentle squeezes on his toe, to which at last he thought it time to correspond, but would not venture to make the smallest motion till he could assure himself they proceeded from the lady, and not perhaps accidentally from one of the two gentlemen on his right or left; by casting his eyes unperceived under the table, when the second rubber was about to begin, he saw the lady's feet very well stretched out towards his own, and had no more doubt of the part he was to act; and the play then went on both under the table and over it. My opponents, (says Costigan) were an officer and a judge, dressed in his gown, with a large cross at his breast. Much of our time was spent in their abusing each other's play; and, during their altercation, I observed they gave each other the lie direct, repeatedly, without the least appearance of offence on either side, or any emotion of surprize among the spectators, who were numerous. Upon mentioning to an old French general in their service, the dumb intrigue carried on by my friend, under the table at the bishop's, and asking, if all the women of quality in the country were of such facility of address in matters of gallantry, he laughed at the recital, but told us, that gallantry, in Portugal, required great skill, patience and address. It was dangerous, but by no means on the part of the ladies, who, of themselves, were the best and kindest creatures imaginable, but on account of the jealous eyes of male and female Arguses; for the mothers well know this to be the best security they could have for their daughters' virtue. On such occasions, when the merciless sword was once unsheathed, it seldom returned to the scabbard without doing mischief. Intrigue here, he observed, was as different from the same thing in Paris or London, as the two greatest opposites in nature, and must be as differently managed."

The family of a Portuguese, like that of a Spanish nobleman, always contains a swarm of useless clients and dependants. When a person is once attached to a Portuguese family, it is considered, as a kind of obligation, to feed and support them, from father to son, or by his interest to provide them suitable establishments in the world, and to marry off their daughters to the best advantage. This number of male and female attendants, collected under one roof, in the great families, occasions the whole to be one continued scene of private gallantry and intrigue. The general rendezvous is every morning in the chapel, where there are daily four or five masses celebrated by the family chaplains; the language and intercourse of the lovers is unintelligible to all but the parties immediately concerned; it is a toss of the head; an eye cast up or thrown down, to the right or left; the fixing of a bouquet, or the pinning of a flower or a ribband of such a colour to such a part of the head or breast; nay, the very throw of the long cloak over the shoulders; and the particular manner of doing so, will convey the hieroglyphic of their wishes, their intentions, and assignations. Indeed it could hardly be otherwise where a number of idle and healthy young men and women are assembled under the same roof, without any other moral or religious principle of restraint, but the fear of being discovered; and, stimulated the more by the difficulties opposed to the gratification of their desires, they will quickly counterfeit the appearance of every virtue to accomplish their ends.

The following anecdote, from Costigan, related by a French officer in the service of Portugal, Major General de Valeré, may serve as a confirmation of the underhand intrigues in the families of the Portuguese nobility. This officer, although a favourite with Marshal de Saxe, had been obliged, by a variety of adventures, in the early part of his life, to offer his services to inspect the education of the son and heir of a Portuguese nobleman of high rank, with a view to make his way either in the army or to some civil employment. "But I soon found, (said the general) that my only channel was by marrying one of the favourite maids of her excellency, the mother of my pupil, and that then I should be quickly provided for; as for teaching the son any thing, that was entirely out of the question; his mother would never permit him to apply, and his whole time, in the morning, was spent in conversing or playing at cards with the lacquies in the stables; and, in the afternoon, he dressed in his uniform, rode about the city, went to the bull-feasts, or did whatever he liked best. I was perfectly idle, and wished, by almost any means, for a commission in the army. I had scraped a particular acquaintance with one of the gravest of the lady's attendants, called the Dya, or sub-governess, a very handsome woman, and still in her prime; she smattered a little French, and, under pretence of improving it, I was frequently admitted to her conversation. We soon came into the practice of the family, and commenced a piece of gallantry, which was carried as far as either she or I could desire. She told me, after we were become very intimate, that she had a very great regard and friendship for me, and that if I would agree to marry her daughter, a very fine young girl, and also an attendant in the family, she would undertake to get me a captain's commission. I had already seen her daughter, and, except the circumstance of her being so, had no objection; and this I proposed to her, when she next talked on the subject; she answered me by saying, she did not apprehend I was inclined to be so squeamish; that I was one who was disposed to drown myself in very little water, and that, surely, if she had no objection, I ought to have none, to become as intimate with her daughter, as I had been with herself; that there was no necessity for her daughter's knowing any thing of our connexion, which might be carried on in the same manner after marriage as before, without causing the smallest suspicion. I temporized with this woman, and begged time to advise with my relations; in this she acquiesced, provided I continued to be her gallant; and, during this time, the effects of another piece of gallantry, between her daughter and my friend the secretary, became too visible to be any longer concealed, which got me out of the scrape. Such another proposal being afterwards made me, by the mother of my young pupil, in favour of another young person of her attendants, I married her, and got myself out of this base domestic sort of life.

Another singular custom in the great families of Portugal is the putting servants almost on a level with the heads of the family. The Portuguese nobility and gentry are shocked at the improper and severe distance at which the English keep their servants, treating them more like slaves than humble friends and attendants; whereas they think, that by gentle and familiar treatment, they bid fairer for conciliating their affections, and ensuring their fidelity. A glaring instance of this sort (says Costigan) I was eye-witness to, at a grand entertainment, given by a Portuguese nobleman. After tea, coffee, and sweetmeats had been served in abundance to a very large company, a considerable part of it stood up to dance country-dances, while others retired to other apartments, where card-tables were placed; and, at a large one, the eldest son of the family held a faro-bank, which soon drew to it people enough, willing to try their fortunes, among whom I was one. We continued playing for some time, when, looking round, to my surprize I saw three or four of the domestics, who had served us the tea and coffee, seated familiarly among us, punting at the bank, and conversing with the banker and gentlemen upon the most equal footing, and treated by them with the utmost civility and complaisance, calling them by their christian names, always preceded by Senhor, or Mr. in English.

The Portuguese nobility is divided into three classes. When the ecuyer, on horseback, rides before the carriage, the Lisbon etiquette denotes it to belong to the firk rank; the ecuyer riding on one side marks the second rank; and, when he rides behind, he belongs to the third class of nobility. It is also customary for gentlemen to sit uncovered in their carriages; but a servant, returning in one, is obliged to sit covered, by which means the persons sitting in other carriages, which meet or pass it, are betrayed into no improper salutations.

A drunkard is held in contempt and detestation in Portugal, and the very appellation of drunkard, seriously applied, is reckoned equal to the bitterest term of reproach that can be bestowed in the English language: on the contrary, nothing is more common, among friends and acquaintances, in conversation, than to give and receive the lie reciprocally, in serious as well as jocular discourse, without any offence being taken. Such are the opposite customs of different nations, even in our limited continent of Europe. To this we shall subjoin an anecdote, somewhat to the purpose, which happened during the war in 1762. Major Luttrell, of general Burgoyne's light dragoons, which were then serving in Portugal, seeing some fine Spanish horses in the troop of an officer in the Portuguese service, who was then raising a regiment, took a fancy to one of them, and was desirous of purchasing it. They accordingly made a bargain before witnesses, and it was agreed he should have the horse the same evening, for 60 moidores: Before evening came the captain changed his mind, and sent the major word he could not let him have the horse, unless he advanced considerably beyond the price. Major Luttrell, provoked at such a breach of promise, went with his interpreter to the captain, telling him beforehand, that, though he could not speak the language of the country, yet he understood it well enough to know if he interpreted faithfully what he should tell him in English, and swearing, if he did not, that he would instantly run him through the body. When they came to the captain, major Luttrell asked him if he had not agreed, in the forenoon, to sell him such a horse at such a price? To which the other readily answered in the affirmative. He then asked him why he now receded from his bargain? The captain answered, He receded from it because the horse was too cheap; and, that he would not part with him unless he gave him 80, instead of 60 moidores. Major Luttrell now ordered his interpreter to tell the captain that, by his infamous behaviour, he had shewn himself to be a liar, a rascal, and a scoundrel. The captain, at this, shrugged his shoulders, and said, he was sorry the gentleman should take offence, where none was intended; but that he would part with his horse on no other terms. On finding this, the major desired the interpreter to acquaint the captain, that in France or England, if one officer bestowed on another such epithets as he had done on him, the officer so grossly insulted, must, and certainly would, directly call the other out, and fight him.

The captain, still preserving his sang froid, replied to the interpreter very deliberately, that what the gentleman said might be very true, for any thing he knew to the contrary, but that he saw no good reason for preferring the practice of foreigners, in this instance, to that of his own country; if he considered himself so affronted, he should never be such a fool or a madman as, by calling out his antagonist, to offer him an equal chance of taking his life, while he knew of a safer and more certain method of obtaining satisfaction, adequate to the affront received. In other words, by stabbing him unawares, or by hiring assassins to do so. Such is the point of honour in this country.

Beggars in Portugal are very numerous. "It is impossible, (says Baretti) to conceive how I was teized by them. There are always some come about you with a simpering look. They hope you have had a good journey; wish you may live 1000 years, and then ask for something to buy themselves alfileres, that is, pins. If their first demand is complied with, they have a second ready. Please, Vossa Senhoria, to give me something for a little babe I have at home.' 'Well, here is something for the little babe.' 'But pray, good Sir, give me something for my dear mother; for my younger sister; for my cousin; for my niece.' There is no end of their languid coquetry, especially if the wenches be somewhat young and sprightly. At Peagones one of them came in whilst I was at dinner, and first asked as usual for some pin-money;▪ then for a loaf of bread; then for a bit of the pastry; then for a wing of a fowl; then for a slice of cheese; and then for a bunch of grapes. Having complied with each demand, she sate down by me on the floor, and ate heartily; then returned to the attack, and smiled prettily again, and begged for some more money. I verily believe, had I given her one of my eyes, she would have asked for the other." This we give as a specimen of female bashfulness.

As for the lower class of men, such as inn-keepers, ostlers, and mule-drivers, they generally address themselves, uncovered, to any stranger, but always with a familiar smile upon their faces; nor do they in the least appear timid or bashful.

"In Lisbon (says the above writer) I once sent for a barber. The fellow came with a simper on his cheeks: Sir, I give you joy of your safe arrival in Lisbon, said he, whilst placing the napkin under my chin; and then asked leave to take a pinch of snuff out of my box. In shaving me, I was told many things by him, of which he supposed me ignorant; as, that in Portugal the weather was very hot; that there were figs and grapes in abundance; and likewise plenty of fish, the sea being so very near. His razors (he said) came from Barcelona, as in Portugal they made none that were good. When he had finished shaving one side of my face, he stopped, to ask what opinion I had of his countrymen; and upon my answering, that as yet I knew very little about them, he seized that opportunity to inform me, that Os Portuguezes sam mulito malerozos; the Portuguese are very spiteful; and, flourishing his Barcelona weapon, added, with a lofty tone, that the Spaniards trembled at the name of a Portuguese; that one Portuguese was sufficient to put to flight half a dozen Spaniards: nor was I fully shaved before he had conquered both the Castilles. Of such rhodomontades, Portugal has even a larger number than of idlers.

Neighbouring nations have, in general, a strong antipathy to each other, but that of the Portuguese to the Spaniards is carried to such a pitch as borders upon madness. The reason is plain. The chance that the Portuguese have to conquer Spain is next to impossible; and people will always hate those whom they must sometimes fight against, without any hopes of getting the better of them. On the contrary, were the Spaniards not prevented by the other European powers, they would soon over-run Portugal, if so inclined; it is perhaps from this notion that they have a proverb, which says—the Portuguese are few and foolish.

The amusements of the common people are full of low buffoonery. On entering a town which lay in my route through the kingdom, (says Baretti) I saw several hundred masks; a group of them surrounded my chaise, hallooing, shouting, and playing antics. They said many things, quite unintelligible to me, in a squeaking voice, which I suppose were intended to be full of wit. The noise drew the women to their windows, and I was pleased to see them laugh no less than the masks. Of the masks, some were dressed like bears, others like monkies. One wore horns on his head, and another had a tail hanging behind him. One had tied his cloak round his waist petticoat-wise, and another had stockings of different colours. Some wore the Golilla after the Spanish manner, and others large breeches, after the Swiss mode. Some shook the castanets, others played on the guitar. Several stooped down in a row that others might jump over them; and several ran round the square throwing their hands and legs about like madmen. Two of them came under the window of the inn, and raised up their long sticks, on which they had fastened wooden parrots, ill shaped and ill painted, then, laughing most immoderately, cried out, Montu, montu. Many shewed their humour, by pulling off their hats to me, and bowing to the ground, with a mock respect.

This buffoonery, or low wit, is extended to their poetry, they are most unmerciful poet-tasters, and make verses on every occasion, the most trifling, as well as the most important; and all in the same bad style, all equally bombastic, extravagant, and gigantic. But on occasion of a marriage, or the anniversary of a birth-day, the complimentary verses are held indispensable; above all the glozers are what may be deemed the most ludicrous and extraordinary. They very much resemble the Improvisatori in Italy, and are held in the greatest esteem.

When the company, which are generally numerous on such occasions, are assembled, the wit who intends to exhibit, if in conversation with any lady, especially with one he affects to admire, lays hold of any short sentence she happens to let fall in discourse, and repeating it, calls out La Vay, which is to advertise the company he is going to gloze that sentence, which may be considered as his text, and is distinguished by the name of Mote; that is, he must make four, eight, and more verses ex tempore, having reference to that sentence, and containing most frequently extravagant compliments to the lady, or sometimes to the bride, or the company present. The verses must be so disposed, as to make good sense, nor only with the mote, or sentence fixed upon, but if well executed, the whole turn of the wit and emphasis of the verses must fall upon that sentence, which must infallibly make the last line of the verses, and all this suddenly and off hand. They often ask the ladies to give them a mote, or text, which they must gloze immediately; and where this is well performed, the whole company clap hands, and re-echo from all parts, Bravo! Viva! Viva! Bello! He who is dexterous at glozing in this manner, is esteemed a first-rate genius, and considered as having reached the summit of Parnassus; even their great Camoens did not disdain amusing himself in this way, and among others, he made a gloze to every letter of the alphabet. But when a lady glozes, as some do very prettily, she is praised and commended to the skies.

It is usual for the Portuguese nobility, to give entertainments of this kind at their villas in the neighbourhood of the capital. A description of the splendour with which they are accompanied, may not be unentertaining, as their magnificence exceeds any thing to be seen in this country. The one we are going to relate, was given by the Marquis de Pancorva, on the marriage of his daughter. Such quantities of ancient plate, chairs, tables, utensils, and such numbers of servants, borrowed and collected from all his friends and acquaintances, at such an exorbitant expence, for one moment, (says Costigan) from whom the account is taken, are only to be exemplified in the family of a Portuguese nobleman. The card of invitation we received on the occasion, was to dine with him at his country-house, on the other side of the Tagus, and requested us to be at the water-side at 11 o'clock next forenoon, where there would be a barge in waiting to receive us; and tho' we were punctual, we found every thing there ready, and the family embarked, and a dozen other barges full of nobility, with streamers and colours flying, scarlet or crimson awnings, surrounded with gold fringes and silk curtains. The rowers of each barge were dressed in different uniforms. One barge was rowed by 20 oars, and three men to each, rising up and sitting down at every stroke; the whole setting off in cadence on a signal given, each having a band of music on board. A scene which reminded us of Cleopatra going to meet Anthony. We had three leagues to go, and our rowers, stout men from the province, exerted all their strength; but the tide being far from favourable, it was two o'clock before we arrived at the scene of action. A very large villa stood upon the beach, surrounded by dwarffirs, and sand-hills. Dinner was already served in the second saloon, into which we were ushered. The table consisted of 50 covers, with a couple of servants behind each chair. The ladies were much fewer in number than the gentlemen. The entertainment consisted of three regular services, and the whole in old heavy massive plate. Many of the servants were in uniform, others perfectly well dressed, with fine lace ruffles, and the collar and cross of the order of Christ hanging on their breasts. During dinner, several pieces of Perez's music were played, and there were some charming arias by the best voices from the patriarchal church. The same music continued at the dessert, in the adjoining saloon to which we removed: one half of the servants attending us thither, whilst the other and graver part sat down to dinner at the table we left.

The windows of the apartment where the dessert was served, were numerous, spacious, and open to the bottom, so that the floor was on a level with the ground without, on which there now appeared a company of masks, dressed as shepherds and shepherdesses, with flowers and garlands, and dancing in a variety of figures to the music, which accompanied them. When they ceased, two men, and as many women, danced the Spanish Fandango, in the midst of which, and to the time of the music, one of the men contrived to give a wheel into the saloon, and placed a crown of myrtles, beautifully interwoven with flowers, and two billing-doves suspended over it on the head of the bride, while one of the women did the same on the bridegroom; this feat, which in reality, is a very nimble performance, drew a hundred viva's from the company; the poets became more and more vociferous with their motes and their glozas, and the whole company seemed dissolved in joy and satisfaction. At last about sun-set, coffee appeared, and in an hour after, the whole company were embarked in their barges for Lisbon.

The drollery and facetiousness of the watermen, who were in dire wrath with their saint for not giving them a wind, was now a new subject for mirth. The barges had separated to the right and left in crossing the spacious bason to Lisbon, the better to enjoy the effects of the music. Our barge had taken the right of all, and the tide coming full in, as we approached the city, where the current is extremely rapid, we were carried a considerable way above it, our stout Algarve rowers pulling strong against the tide to very little purpose.

"I wish S. Anthony would send us a breeze from those hills to the north, (said one of the rowers) as he often does. Would to God our lady obliged him to do so, (replied several others) let us pray a responsio to him." The responsio is a sort of prayer in bad Latin, which the priests teach the people to address to S. Anthony, as the particular saint of Lisbon, to recover any thing they have lost, or to obtain a happy journey, or a fair wind, &c. When they had finished this prayer, they all cried out with one voice, blow! blow! S. Anthony!

"Hand my gossip from the prow," said a facetious fellow near me, "and I will talk to him." This man, named Ivo, was the established wit and oracle of the whole crew. Upon this, they handed him a board about two feet long, and five or six inches broad; at the lower end was fixed a small box for receiving alms, and about it was painted the figure of the saint, with the child Jesus in his arms. Ivo sat the saint down before them, the rowers tugged away, and we offered them wine, which they refused, but drank plenty of water which they had brought with them in their kegs. Ivo then addressed himself to S. Anthony, 'You know gossip,' said he, 'for S. Anthony was godfather to one of his children, I am well acquainted with your tricks, and have had but too much reason on many occasions to call you mulish and obstinate, but I desire and expect you will not expose us now, especially before these Englishmen, by your wrongheadedness, for only consider what the watermen of London will think of you, if these gentlemen should tell them, that when we asked you only for a small puff of wind to carry us to your own city, you had the shabbiness and ill-nature to refuse it to us.' After some ribaldry with the other rowers, Ivo took up the board, and shaking it, found the alms box empty. Oh, Oh! now I understand him, (exclaimed Ivo) now I know the reason we cannot get a wind, my gossip will do nothing, not even for our lady herself, without an alms! Do pass him about among the noble company of Fidalgo's, and let every one give him something, as soon as he hears the money chinking in his box, we shall have a wind directly. When the alms were collected, Ivo set the saint down again before him. By and by, as I was become familiar to Ivo, I asked him where was the wind he had been so long promising us! He assured me it would come, for that although his gossip was sometimes slow, he never failed him. Soon afterwards, some of the rowers said S. Anthony was a blockhead and a coxcomb, and did not care a straw for what Ivo said to him. Do you hear gossip, (said Ivo) what my comrades are saying of you; though they speak truth, and you richly deserve it all? No wind appearing, Ivo began to call S. Anthony all the names he could think of, told him, if a ducking was all he wanted, he should soon have his belly full of salt water; he called him a fool, a drunkard, a thief, a cuckold, a (cabrao) pimp of his own wife, and told him he would break his horns for him, if he did not mind his business better.

Our men pulled away for an hour longer, without the least sign of any wind; at last, Ivo starting up in a violent passion, drew his sharp pointed knife, and presenting it to the face of the painting of S. Anthony, said to him, you son of a w—, if it was not for the respect I have for that bastard son in your arms, I would fill that ugly face of your's, with stabs of my knife.

Soon after this, we came nearly opposite to a sort of a valley, at the upper end of the city, from whence we had a breeze. Oh! you will consent then after all, will you, you old cuckold, after we have almost broken the bones of our arms with rowing: now you come with your snivelling wind when we do not want your assistance. But remember friend, I tell you before all this noble company, if you are not more tractable in future, I will strike my name out of your brotherhood and society, I will never give you a farthing, nor collect any more alms, nor make any feasts for you, nor take the least notice of you, any more than I would of the meanest saint in the calendar.

"At last (says Costigan) we reached the quay where all the rest of the company had landed before us, and got home about eleven o'clock, strangely amused with the odd variety of this day's entertainment, which must have cost the Marquis little short of 500l.

The amusements of the Portuguese are much the same with those of the Spaniards; bull-feasts, balls, concerts, promenades, and dull, miserable performances of comedies. These are taken either from some subjects in the sacred writings, or descriptive of low and obscene wit, personified in the most vulgar characters.

"There is no public theatre here, at present, (says Costigan) the pious Queen not choosing to permit such a school of immorality in a public manner; much less would she suffer women to exhibit on the stage were it open; being of opinion, that, to permit women thus to act in public, would have too much the appearance of patronizing the favourite vice of her country; for the principal object is to obviate public scandal; and this agrees with a standing advice the old friars in this country are ever giving to the young ones—Si non caste, tantum modo caute—'If you cannnot be chaste, at least be cautious.'—Accordingly the wits here say, her Majesty, by virtue of her absolute authority, may prevent the women from acting in public, but, they thank God, it is not in her power to prevent them from playing their parts in private. The nobility, however, have private theatres in their villas, in which are occasionally exhibited dramatic entertainments.

In one of these theatrical pieces (says Costigan) to which we were invited, we were presented with a comedy, representing the creation of the world; and we saw the Eternal Father (Padre Eterno) with a long white beard, descend in a cloud, with a great number of lights and angels about him, to give orders for its creation.

The next scene presented us with the serpent tempting Eve; and his Infernal Majesty passing the most exaggerated encomiums on her beauty, in order to engage her to eat; which, as soon as she had done, and made Adam do the same, there came a terrible storm of thunder and lightning, in the midst of which was a dance of infernal spirits, with the devil in the middle, all in high glee, and congratulating their monarch on the success of his schemes against mankind; the devil was dressed in black, with scarlet stockings, long ruffles, and a broad lace on his hat, with a large feather to it, all of the same flaming colour. While diverting himself in this manner, a loud and solemn voice, from behind the scenes, pronounced the name of Jesus; on which the whole company of devils sunk immediately under the stage, through trap-doors, that sent forth flames and smoak.

As soon as the scene shifted, the Eternal Father was seen again descending, with great wrath. He immediately called for Noah, who was ready in waiting, and told him, he was so provoked by the wickedness of mankind, that he was determined to drown them all together, and regretted he should have created such a scurvy set of fellows. Here the piety of Noah interceded, and it was agreed at last that Noah should build an ark, according to the directions the Eternal Father gave him; he therefore ordered Noah to go to the royal dock at Lisbon, and call John Gonsalves, (the name of the present master builder) whom he desired Noah to employ, assuring him he preferred John Gonsalves's method of building ships, to those of all their boasted French and English builders; after which the Eternal Father went up to heaven, and Noah to build his ark.

The next scene represented S. Christopher, like a giant, our Saviour, who was represented as a boy, about 10 or 12 years old, and the devil, dressed as before. The Prince of Darkness complained grievously of the irreparable mischief done to him and his kingdom, by the coming of Christ. He said, that he could now scarce put his foot in any corner of the earth, without meeting with christians and saints. He asked the saint what kind of conscience his master must have, who was for taking all to himself, and leaving kim nothing; though he must be sensible it was more the fear of him, than any love for his antagonist, that made so many christians; and desired the saint would introduce him to Christ, that so they might settle their affairs in an amicable manner. S. Christopher said, he really did not know where to find Jesus Christ at present, but believed that he was with his father and mother, at Heliopolis, in Egypt. The devil said, he had not time to go so far that night; but, to the best of his remembrance, he thought the little boy he had with him very much resembled Jesus Christ, when he saw him, about 700 years since, going into the temple at Jerusalem. The Saint assured him that he was not Christ; and the little boy himself declared that, so far from being Christ, he was only the son of a poor Carpenter, at Nazareth, who, with the sweat of his brow, was scarce able to earn enough to purchase a couple of pilchards, and a bit of brown bread, for himself and his mother.

After this S. Christopher and the devil had a long conversation upon the nature of the Trinity, which concluded with the devil's telling the saint it was such an intricate, contradictory piece of business, that he owned he could not comprehend a syllable of it. Upon this the saint tells the devil, he must be a great blockhead, and a most egregious ass, for that nothing was more plain and self-evident; and that he would make it appear so to him in an instant. On this he took up with his left hand the skirt of his garment, and, with his right, making a fold of part of it, said, here is one; then, making another fold, here are two; afterwards, making a third; he asked him, if that was not three? and the other answering in the affirmative, the saint dropped the folds, and stretched out all that part of his garment between his hands in one piece, without any folds; and the devil, after so palpable a demonstration, acknowledged he clearly understood the Trinity.

This matter being discussed, the little boy begged S. Christopher to carry him on his shoulders over a deep and rapid river, that ran near them; to this the saint consented, though the devil cautioned him how he meddled with the boy, of whom he still had his doubts who he really was. However, the saint took him up, but, before he got to the middle of the river, was ready to sink under his burden, and began to call out, at which the devil laughed heartily, and asked him why he would not follow his advice? The boy said to the devil, while on his shoulders, in the water, 'If Atlas had found the weight of the poles such a load that he could hardly bear it, no wonder, Christopher, that, though a giant, you should find me much heavier, who created not only the world, but the sun, the moon, and all the planetary system.' On the boy's saying this, the saint found himself relieved, and, setting him down on the other side, fell upon his knees to worship him; and then, making the sign of the cross over the water, on the devil, the Prince of Darkness immediately vanished into flame and smoke, leaving a strong sulphureous smell behind him.

The piece concluded with a scene of some nuns in conversation with their gallants, at the parlour grate of a convent. After many bombast declarations of their passion, interspersed with double entendres, the ladies desire the gentlemen to entertain them with a dance, which they do, by dancing some obscene dances, practised only by the blacks, and this part of the entertainment meets with great applause.

The after-piece to this comedy was equally ludicrous. The scene lay in a cobler's shop, who was at work, with his wife near him, rather handsome than otherwise; and two friars, who casting a leering look at his wife, but were at the same time engaged in a deep dispute with the cobler. One of the friars insisted there could exist matter without form, while the other was as strenuous in supporting a contrary opinion, to which the cobler seemed also inclined; whilst his wife very prudently embraced both opinions. In the mean time a young buck enters the shop, and desires the cobler to mend the strap of his shoe-buckle. On this the cobler calls to his wife to know what money was in the house? she replies a piece-of-eight and seven reals. The cobler then turns to the buck, and asks him if he was not ashamed to desire him to work for him, when he heard he had so much money in the house? and bids him get his strap mended where he pleased, for he would work for no man while he was so rich. The dispute between matter and form still went on, (in Portuguese the words materia and forma signify matter and form; and the word forma likewise signifies a shoemaker's last) the party who insisted matter could exist without form, not producing one good reason in support of his argument, and being very obstinate, the cobler, on perceiving this, said, he would soon convince him: so, rising from his tripod in a rage, and taking up his last or forma, he threw it with such force at his antagonist, as made a large cut on his forehead. 'Now, (said the cobler, exulting) after what my forma has done, I'll answer for it, there will be produced matter in abundance.' This turn of wit raised great applause in the house, after which the cobler, the friars, the buck, and the cobler's wife, being each provided with a leather, began beating one another round the stage, to the great diversion of the spectators; and this is the manner that the after-pieces in this country generally end.

The manner of travelling in this country is similar to that in Spain, except that they have not so many carriages, and go more by water, their towns lying more on the sea-coast, and the mouths of the great river, rising in Spain, emptying themselves here. Mules, or litters are mostly used in travelling; their horses, which are very fiery and active, serving only for short visits, or in cavalcades. These latter, not being so strong and sure-footed, and consequently less able to climb the mountains than the mules, is the reason that they are scarcely ever made use of in travelling.

No person in Lisbon is allowed to have horses to his carriage, except the royal family, foreign ministers, and a few others. Every one makes use of mules. Portugal is said not to abound in horses, and those which the Portuguese have, they are obliged to smuggle from Spain, the exportation of which are forbidden under very severe penalties. There being no regular conveyances of carriages between the two kingdoms of Spain and Portugal for travellers, those who do not choose to ride upon mules or to walk, are obliged to hire 2-wheel chaises. These carriages are near, tolerably well hung, and drawn by mules, but travelso very slow, that a person used to the rapid mode of conveyance, by our mail-coaches and post-coaches, has need of all his patience to support the tediousness of the journey.

"In all the great towns and villages on the road to Oporto, (says Costigan) although there are no carriages to be met with, there are miserable little asses, constantly to be hired, which fly like lightning to the next town, where fresh ones are to be had; but were you to beat them to death, they would not go one step further. This mode of travelling however is not dear, being at the rate of two-pence each Portuguese league, or not quite three farthings English per mile.

CHAP. IV. Commerce, Manufactures, &c.

THE Portuguese carry on a very extensive trade, from which they derive but little advantage, being obliged to vend not only their own products, but all the merchandize and riches brought home to them from their settlements in other parts of the globe, to the Europeans who trade with them, especially the English; for their grain and manufactured goods of all kinds, with which they supply Portugal, both for its home consumption and its settlements abroad. The merchandize which the Portuguese furnish foreigners with, are, sea-salt, oil, wine, lemons, Seville and China oranges, figs, raisins, almonds, chesnuts, and other fruits, together with wool, silk, and other materials for manufactures; but their chief commodities consist of imports from their own colonies, particularly from Brazil; such as sugars, tobacco, cocoa-nuts, ivory, ebony, Brazil-wood, hides, spices, drugs, gold, pearls, diamonds, and other valuable gems.

The Portuguese shipping frequent but little the other countries of Europe or the Levant; their voyages lying rather to the coasts of Africa, particularly to the gold-coasts, whence they carry Negroes to the Brazils; they meet there also with some gold and ivory. They trade likewise to their East India colonies of Goa, Diu, and Macao; but this traffic, once so very important, is now much upon the decline. Brazil, however, continues a very plentiful treasure to them. All foreigners are excluded from any commerce with Brazil; the Portuguese, however, carry on a very considerable clandestine traffic with the Spaniards, which consists principally in an exchange of gold and silver, by which each king is defrauded of his fifth. From Brazil, the Portuguese bring not only sugar and tobacco, but likewise gold and diamonds. Of the quantity of gold annually brought into Lisbon from thence, some conjecture may be made from the amount of the King's fifth, which, one year with another, is near 300,000l. consequently the annual produce of gold in Brazil, may be estimated at 2,000,000 sterling. The fleet, which sails every year to Brazil, goes and returns in seven or eight months; and when homeward bound, is convoyed by some men of war. Ships from Africa or the East Indies come also in company with it.

The neglect of agriculture has been taken notice of already; and the same observation may be made of all arts and manufactures, although this country possesses the finest materials of all kinds, but these are disposed of rough to foreigners. The Portuguese, indeed, make a little linen, and different kinds of straw-work, and candy different kinds of fruits, particularly oranges. They have likewise some coarse silk and woollen manufactures; but these are trifling articles, and support but a very small part of the nation. It also very much concerns all foreigners trading to Portugal, and particularly the English, that the Portuguese do not apply themselves to manufactures, and they are therefore very industrious (says Busching) to prevent it; of which the manufactury for looking-glass set up some few years since at Lisbon was a memorable instance.

According to Baretti, the only articles that the Portuguese export to any very considerable amount, are oranges, lemons, and wine, which England takes from them in large quantities; but still the balance of trade is very much in favour of the English, from the great demand for their manufactures in Portugal.

This branch of commerce the French and Dutch have long been endeavouring to get from the English. But their endeavours are not likely to prove successful. One reason is, that the English are more powerful at sea than either the French or the Dutch, and there is something in superior strength which will carry almost any point, among nations as well as among individuals. The other is, that neither the French or Dutch could purchase from the Portuguese those large quantities of fruit and wine which the English take in part of payment for what they furnish. If the Portuguese should be inclined to purchase the manufactures they receive from England, either from the French or the Dutch; the English, without commencing hostilities, have only to provide themselves elsewhere with wine and fruit, and the Portuguese are half-ruined. It is therefore probable that the commerce between Portugal and England will continue in its present state, as long as the inhabitants of this latter country shall continue fond of the bottle and the bowl; unless some singular revolution should happen in the government of the country of the former. And, according to Costigan, some such revolution seems fast approaching; "for (says he) to my certain knowledge, the Prince of Asturias (who is now on the throne of Spain) has said, more than once, that he considers Portugal as a province wrested from him, which he will make it his business to re-unite to his other possessions." No doubt the project would be as easily accomplished as the conquest would be important, were not England to interfere, which does not seem to enter at all into the calculation of the above writer.

Tobacco is not allowed to be cultivated in any part of Portugal under pain of death. All kinds of it, as well as snuff, excepting those which come from the Brazils, are strictly prohibited. The tobacco is of two sorts, the one is dry leaves, the price of which is 4s. 6d. per pound; the other, rolled up in pieces of an inch thick, and five or six inches long. This sort is very black, wet, and stinking, and sells at about half the price of the other. The snuff is of the fine dust, known in England by the name of Brazil snuff.

The usual method of reckoning in Portugal is by reis and crusados; the first is their smallest brass coin, 3000 of which are equal to a pound sterling; the other is a silver coin, of about two shillings and eight-pence value. Their brass coins, as well as their silver ones, are of different degrees of value; some are single reis, others reis and a half; and some are for five and ten reis. They have also silver coins, from 20 to 500 reis, besides which, they stamp the number 600 on the Spanish pieces of eight, to signify they may be taken for 600 reis. Their gold coins are, the moidore, valued at 4000 reis, the half moidore, quarter moidore, &c.

CHAP. V. History, Constitution, Government, &c.

WE will now give the leading traits in the Portuguese history, from the time that the Moors made a conquest of it in the eighth century, who divided it, like Spain, into a number of small principalities. In the 12th century, the Moors were driven from thence by Alphonso, one of their counts, who was proclaimed king, by the name of Alphonso I. It was not, however, till the 15th century, under John II. that the Portuguese became powerful, and acquired any territories in the Indian seas. This monarch projected the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, to the East Indies, and built the castle of Minas on the coast of Guinea. His predecessor, Alphonso V. had before taken several very strong places on the African coast. John II. was succeeded by Emanuel, who married Isabella, daughter of Ferdinand the Catholic: it was under him that Portugal arrived at the highest pitch of its glory. The Portuguese were then sole masters of the commerce between India and Europe, which had before been carried on by the Venetians, and other maritime states in the Mediterranean, through Egypt, and by the channel of the Red Sea. In making their frequent voyages into the Indian seas, the Portuguese, by chance, discovered the Brazils in America, and several rich countries on the coast of Africa; from all which, flowed such immense treasures into Portugal, during this reign, as to give this period of their history the appellation of the golden age. Emanuel died in the beginning of the 16th century, and was succeeded by his son, John III. whose reign was fortunate and prosperous. This monarch applied his endeavours to restore arts and sciences in Portugal, and to people those colonies, which had been so lately discovered in Asia, Africa, and America. His successor, not satisfied with the immense territories he possessed, undertook an expedition into Africa against the Moors, under pretence of rousing the courage of his subjects, and reviving that military discipline, which was almost lost sight of, by a long continuance of peace and plenty. The opportunity seemed favourable, the Moors having at that time just deposed their sovereign. The issue, however, proved disastrous. The Portuguese advancing too far into the country, were surrounded by a more numerous army of the Moors, and totally defeated. The king, and most of the nobility who attended him, were slain, and all the rest either cut to pieces, or taken prisoners. This blow the Portuguese never recovered, but soon after, fell under the dominion of Spain. This happened under Philip the Second's reign, who claimed the kingdom in right of his mother, and sent the Duke of Alva at the head of an army to take possession of it.

King Philip having thus united Portugal to Spain, the Portuguese became great sufferers by the union. For Philip being at that time endeavouring to reduce his rebellious subjects in the Netherlands to their allegiance, thought nothing would so much contribute to it, as prohibiting their carrying on any commerce, either with Spain or Portugal; but this prohibition turned out very contrary to his expectations; for the Dutch being excluded from trading with Spain and Portugal, from whence they used to bring spices and other valuable merchandise, fitted out strong fleets themselves; which they not only sent to the East and West Indies, in search of these commodities, but likewise drove the Portuguese from some of their best settlements in India, and different parts of Asia, as well as from others that they had in the Brazils, and on the coast of Africa.

This exasperated the Portuguese so much, that they would gladly have shaken off the Spanish yoke; but Philip II. maintained his dominion over them, as did Philip III. Philip IV. also succeeded peaceably to the united kingdoms, which he enjoyed about 19 years; but the Spaniards having been weakened by a long and expensive war with France, and the revolt of the Catalonians, the Portuguese had a fair opportunity of delivering their country from the Spanish yoke, which they embraced; and as the Duke of Braganza was the next in blood to their former princes, they made him an offer of the crown, of which he did not seem very ambitious; but while revolving on the one hand, the danger of the enterprize; and on the other, the glory that would accrue to his country, and to his family in particular, if he succeeded; the court of Spain having some information of the design, Philip summoned the Duke, and others of the Portuguese nobility, to attend him to the Catalonian war. The Duke saw the snare, and excused himself as well as he could, pretending his finances were low; a remittance of 20,000 pistoles were immediately sent him, with a promise of accommodating him with more. Things being thus brought to a crisis, the Duke consulted his Dutchess on the occasion: she was of the family of Medina Sidonia, a princess of great spirit, and is said to have answered him thus: 'Sir, if you go to Spain, you run the risk of your life; you do the same in attempting the crown of Portugal; but if you must die, it is better to die a king than a duke:' and this it seems, determined his choice. The whole kingdom of Portugal, and all their foreign settlements, unanimously acknowledged him for their sovereign, except Ceuta, in which was a Spanish governor. Thus was this surprising revolution effected in an instant, without having cost the lives of more than three people, one of which was the Viceroy, who, having in the commotion, concealed himself in his library, under a parcel of books, was betrayed by an old female servant, dragged forth, and put to death by the people: though it afterwards cost a great deal of blood and treasure to maintain it. It was undertaken on the first of December 1640, when in the service of the church, for that day are the following words from St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, ch. 13. v. ii. And that knowing the time, that now it is high time to awake out of sleep; for now is our salvation nearer than when we believed. These words the Portuguese did then, and have ever since regarded as an oracle from Heaven, declaring in their favour. Thus did this prince ascend the throne of Portugal, and was proclaimed by the name of John IV. It was thought very strange, that this design should have been communicated to above 200 persons, and a whole year taken up in preparation for its execution, and yet not be discovered by the court of Spain, till it was too late to prevent it. The new King, however, had not been long upon the throne, before a plot was formed against him.

We will here enumerate the several countries, territories, and islands, subject to the crown of Portugal, which are, first, the country of Brazil in America: this is a vast tract of land, extending along the sea-coasts of South-America. It is the most considerable of all their foreign possessions, and yields great quantities of gold, tobacco, sugar, cotton, ginger, indigo, hides, &c. In Africa they have the fortress Masagan in the kingdom of Morocco, part of the Guinea coast; Angola on the coast of Congo, with some islands on the Caffra coast; Zanguebar, Mozambic, and Quiloa, on the eastern coast of Africa. In the Atlantic ocean, they have the western islands of the Azores, Madeira, and the islands of Cape Verde, and some others. In Asia they still possess Goa, Diu, Daman, and Chaul on the Indian coast, with a large extent of country, and the island of Macao on the southern coast of China, which, though under the government of the Chinese, is inhabited chiefly by the Portuguese. And here we cannot help remarking, what a noble empire the Portuguese possessed in Asia and Africa, about 150 years ago. They were then masters of Ormus and the Persian gulph; of all the coast of India, Siam, and Malacca; of the sea-coasts on the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Ceylon; of the islands of Molucca and Banda, where only the fine spices are to be met with. They had established their religion in the islands of Japan, where they made such a number of proselytes, that the sovereigns, apprehensive of a general revolt, totally extirpated them, as well as their religion. They had also planted their religion throughout the vast empire of China, and might have maintained it there, had not the jesuits interfered. There are now, indeed, no remains of it in either of these places, and the Dutch have expelled them from all their valuable settlements on the continent, and in the islands of Asia, except Goa, and two or three more inconsiderable places. But they were so long possessed of the trade of these countries, and had such numerous settlements, that we find their language, with some corruption, still prevailing in those parts, and a mixed breed of Portuguese and Indian, who imitate the Portuguese in their religion, habits and customs. On the eastern and western coasts of Africa, their religion and language are also every where to be met with; though they have now very little power in that quarter of the globe.

The government of Portugal is an unlimited monarchy, but with respect to the imposition of new taxes, the settlement of the succession, and other important concerns, the consent of the states, which consist of the clergy, principal nobility, and commons, is necessary. The clergy are represented, as in Spain, by the archbishops and bishops; the principal nobility are the dukes, marquisses, counts, viscounts, and barons; and the representatives of the commons, consist of the procurators, or agents of the cities and towns. Among the commonalty, are also reckoned the lower nobility, and the masterships of the orders of knighthood. This assembly never meets, but by proclamation from the King, in which they are styled Cortes. The last was held in the year 1697. Although the crown of Portugal is hereditary, yet the consent of the several states is also necessary to the succession of brother's children. The crown devolves to the female line, but this right is forfeited, if they marry out of the kingdom. In the year 1641, it was confirmed by a manifesto of the states, that in cases relating to succession, the jus representationis should be admitted.

The nobility are very numerous, and many of them of the blood-royal, being descended from natural sons of the royal family. They were formerly more considerable than at present, although so much of the ancient custom, by which the King conferred a maintenance on the nobility, still remains, that he assigns them a pension from a certain fund, to enable them to maintain their dignity; and this is a memorial of the ancient moradias, as it was called, or attendance salary. For such of the nobility as become impoverished or disabled in the king's service, there is likewise a public foundation at Belem, not far from Lisbon, where they have every thing provided for them in a very decent manner. All those who are grandees, and stiled Dons, like those of Spain, consist of three classes, and receive from the royal treasury, a pension sufficient to support their respective dignities. The inferior nobility or gentry are termed Fidalgos; and are incapable of bearing the title of don, unless by permission from the king. The Macos Fidalgos, or gentlemen born, are accounted of higher rank than citizens, who acquire the title of Cavallero Fidalgo, without being enobled by it.

The King's eldest son is stiled Prince of Brazil; the other children and brothers being called Infants. The King's title runs thus: — by the grace of God, King of Portugal and the Algarves, on this and the other Side of the Sea of Africa; Lord of Guinea, and of the Conquests, Trade, and Navigation, in Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, India, &c.

The principal order of knighthood in this kingdom, is the order of Christ, instituted by King Dennis, soon after the abolition of the Knights Templars, and confirmed in the year 1319, by Pope John XXII. The insignia of this is a red cross within a white one. The seat of the order is at the city of Thomar. It has 454 Commanders. Concerning the origin of the order of S. James, writers differ, but it is said to have been raised about the year 1030, from the fraternity of some other orders; and to have received the confirmation of Pope Alexander III. The badge of this order is a red sword, in the shape of a cross, resembling the handles of ancient swords. To this order belong 47 small towns, and places, and 150 commanderies, besides the splendid convent of Santos o Novo, to the west of Lisbon.

The third order in Portugal, that of Aviz, is said to have been instituted so early as the year 1147, by King Alphonso Henriques. The seat of this order is at Aviz, in the province of Alentejo. Its commanderies are only 49 in number, and the badge belonging to it, a green cross, in the form of a lily. These three orders are all religious, with liberty of marriage to the knights. The Kings of Portugal are perpetual Grand Masters. The Knights of Malta have likewise 23 commanderies here.

All the principal affairs of the kingdom are transacted in the council of state, who have the disposal of all ecclesiastical and temporal posts and offices, not immediately dependent on some other board or tribunal; but even these, at last, come before the council of state; particularly the nomination of the archbishops and bishops, viceroys, captains general, governors of provinces, &c. is determined in this council. Peace and war, embassies, alliances, &c. are likewise canvassed in it. The council is said to have been first instituted by Queen Catharine, during the minority of King Sebastian. In the year 1732, it consisted of five ecclesiastics and an equal number of lay officers. The secretary of state is also a member of it, and is assisted by the official mayor and others.

The council of the palace is the highest tribunal to which causes may be brought from inferior courts by appeal. It nominates to all offices belonging to the law, decides disputes of jurisdiction between the lay and spiritual courts, examines the briefs of the Pope's Nuncios, and, besides a great variety of other business, draws up all laws, orders, edicts, confirmations, privileges, grants, &c. This court consists of a president, and several counsellors, whose number is not limited.

The Casa da Supplicaca is the first and highest tribunal of justice, being without appeal in civil or criminal cases. For the inferior administration of justice each of the six provinces of which the kingdom consists, is divided into judicial districts, consisting of a certain number of towns and villages. These again are sub-divided into inferior jurisdictions. There is also another division of them. All jurisdictions are either Correicoens, or Ouvidorias. The former belong to the crown, the latter to the Donatorios, who are partly ecclesiastics and partly laymen. The judge, whom the crown appoints for its district, is stiled Corregidor, and the donatorian is stiled Ouvidor. The Roman law, with the glossaries, is recognized in Portugal; besides which there are royal edicts, and the canon law, and Pope's mandates.

Justice seems to be very singularly administered in this country, according to what information we can collect. In almost all civil suits and litigations, sentences are obtained in favour of that party which can muster the most powerful Empenhos, preserving only the exterior forms and appearance of justice; and these, for evident reasons, are duly executed. In criminal processes, when the truth is even come at, and sentence duly passed, it is seldom or ever put in execution, unless indeed when a culprit is declared innocent; for then, with a small Empenho, he commonly obtains his liberty; and even when capitally convicted, he can, by the same means, obtain an eternal prorogation of the execution of the sentence.

"An Empenho (says Costigan) is the act whereby a person in habits of friendship or intimate acquaintance with another, invested with power or authority, interposes earnestly with him in favour of a third person, in order to procure for him some special favour, he does not always deserve; or to avert from him the imposition of those pains and penalties to which he becomes liable by law."

We will here give an example on this head, which may enable our readers to form some idea of what the point of honour is to be held in this country. Two cousins-german, both men of some property, one a widower, living upon his estate, with a maiden sister to take care of his family, the other an officer in a regiment of infantry; entertained a most violent jealousy of each other, on account of a lady to whom they both made pretensions; this jealousy arose to such a pitch of frantic rage, on the part of the widower, that he went out one day well armed, and accompanied by servants, and meeting his cousin the officer, ordered him to be seized, and in his presence, horse-whipped by a negro slave he brought with him for the purpose; the officer being without arms, and unprovided for such an attack, after receiving the stripes, laid hold of his own beard, and told him he should certainly pay him for such an atrocious insult; the widower, who perfectly understood the meaning of the expression, left this part of the country for above three years, retiring into the kingdom of Gallicia, after which, thinking his cousin's passion must be in some degree cooled, he returned to his estate, never venturing, however, abroad, but in the same litter with his sister, not supposing any cavalier would be rude enough to attack him in the company of a lady; in the mean while, the officer, from the time he was horse-whipped, never appeared more in the regiment, never went to mass, nor shaved his beard, having solemnly sworn to do neither of the three till he had taken, what is here reckoned satisfaction, for such an affront; he continued all the whole time skulking about the country, disguised like a hermit, and having found his cousin was returned, he got together some companions, and way-laid him near his house, as he was returning to it one evening with his sister in the litter, which he stopped, and telling the lady he had some little business with her brother, most politely desired she would alight; he then took a pistol from his sleeve, and applied to his cousins forehead, and after discharging the contents, dragged him out of the litter, and discharged another through his heart, as he lay weltering in his blood: this being done, he asked a thousand pardons of the lady, for having so far incommoded her, and begged to know where she wished to be conducted? She signified a desire to retire to a convent about ten miles from where the catastrophe happened, where she had an only sister, a nun; and the officer, like a gallant cavalier, conducted and lodged her safely with her sister.

This done, he returned to his regiment, reported himself fit for duty, and dressed and appeared on the parade as usual; and the rumour of this cowardly assassination getting wind, he readily acknowledged it, and what was more astonishing, all the nobility and officers in the neighbourhood justified the action, saying, it was the least a man of rank and credit could do to retrieve his reputation.

Mean time, the whole process of the murder, with the examination of the witnesses, to which the civil magistrate of the district is by law enjoined to proceed, within a limited time after notice of the same, was remitted to the commanding officer of the regiment; on whom it was incumbent, as the delinquent was of the army, to order his being tried by a court-martial, agreeable to the articles of war. This was accordingly done, and sentence of death passed on him, which would have been put in immediate execution, had it not been for the strong and numberless Empenhos his relations made for him at court, whereby the King changed his sentence, ordering him to be broke at the head of his regiment, his uniform to be stripped from his back, his sash cut in two, his sword to be broken before him, and he himself to be banished for ten years to the kingdom of Angola, in Africa. The first part of his sentence was executed, and he was kept in prison to be transported by the first opportunity; but strange to relate, the present Queen, on the change of administration, not only pardoned every thing, but ordered him to be restored to his post in the regiment.

The revenues of the crown amount to about 3,500,000 sterling. There arise from the hereditary estates of the house of Braganza, from the royal demesnes, and from the customs and duties on goods, which are excessive. Foreign merchandize likewise pays 23 percent, on importation, and fish from Newfoundland, 25 per cent. Fish taken in the adjoining seas and rivers, pays 27 per cent. and the tax upon lands and houses, when sold, is 10 per cent. The King likewise draws a considerable revenue from the several orders of knighthood, of which, as it is observed, he is grand master. His revenue has also been greatly increased by the suppression of the jesuits, and other religious orders. By the sale of indulgencies, a large sum is annually levied. This privilege the pope renews to the King every three years, by a special bull, including three others, namely, a bull for the living, a bull for the dead, and a bull of composition, by virtue of which, the payment of certain part of an iniquitous gain, renders the rest legal. The monopoly of Brazil snuff produces a considerable revenue. In 1755, this article was farmed for 3,000,000 of crusados. We have already observed that the King has likewise one fifth of all the gold brought from Brazil, estimated one year with another, at 300,000l. To this may be added, the farm of the Brazil diamonds. No wonder, therefore, his revenue is so very ample, considering the extent of the country.

The military force in Portugal, consists of 38 regiments of foot, each of 820 men, including officers; and 12 regiments of cavalry, of 400 horse to each. The horses are of different sizes and colours, and make a very uncouth appearance. In their troops are a great number of British officers, who are mostly Protestants and Scotchmen. It appears from Baretti, that since the war in 1762, there has been a considerable reform in the Portuguese army, and that their soldiers, which before were some of the worst and most beggarly looking troops in Europe, are now in general picked men, and as well disciplined as the Prussians themselves.

S. Anthony of Padua was formerly (says Twiss) the generalissimo of the Portuguese army; his appointments were 300,000 reis, or about 87l. a year; but lately the Count de La Lippe, supplied the Saint's place, who, it appears, has introduced a considerable reform into the army. This officer (says Twiss) was formerly governor of Almeida, and the whole province of Beira, and is in every respect, worthy of the high dignity to which he is raised. He has been in the Portuguese service ever since the year 1763. The British officers here have the same pay as in the English service, which is double that of the Portuguese.

The mode of recruiting the army in Portugal, (says Costigan) is similar to that in Spain, and totally different from that which is practised in England. Each of the provinces, as we have already observed, is divided into districts, and the civil magistrate of every district, is obliged to furnish the number of recruits allotted him, when called upon by government; and such recruits must be the sons of merchants, tradesmen, peasants, labourers, &c. &c. inhabitants of that district; and the father, brother, some relation, or other sufficient person, is made responsible for each recruit, that he shall behave well, and not desert his colours; and if he does, that person is obliged to find another to serve in his place, for whom he must also be responsible.

They have even required this pledge of responsibility from S. Anthony, the titular saint of Lisbon, whom their bigotry has appointed captain in one of their regiments, and for whose security, the Queen of Angels, for so they stile the Virgin Mary, is made responsible. Costigan has transcribed a curious memorial, signed by the commanding officer of the regiment, and bearing date so late in the present century, as the year 1777, which was presented to the prime minister, praying that S. Anthony, who had been a captain in his regiment ever since the year 1688, and had constantly done his duty with the greatest alacrity at the head of his company, upon all occasions, both in peace and war, might be appointed aggregate-major of the said regiment. 'I do certify (says the Major) that having carefully examined all the papers and registers of the regiment since its first formation, there is not any note of bad behaviour or irregularity committed by S. Anthony, nor of his having ever been flogged, imprisoned, or any way punished by his officers, while private in the regiment. That during the whole time he has been a captain, now near 100 years, he has constantly done his duty with the greatest alacrity, and as such, has been seen by his soldiers, times without number, as they are all ready to testify; and in every other respect, has always behaved himself like a gentleman and an officer: on all which accounts, I hold him most worthy and deserving of the rank of aggregate-major to our regiment, and of every other honour, grace, or favour her Majesty shall be graciously pleased to bestow upon him. In testimony whereof I have hereto signed my name this 25th of March, 1777.'

MAGALHAENS HOMEM.

That a man entrusted with the command of a regiment, should be at the close of the eighteenth century in such a lamentable state of bigotry, seems scarcely credible. Costigan observes, very justly, that people will be apt to imagine the above is only caricature, but asserts very confidently, that he has mentioned nothing but literal and sober matters of fact.

This memorial was farther accompanied with 59 certificates (says the above writer) with the cypher of the commanding-officer's name set close by each number, containing a true and faithful relation of the miracles, and other eminent services the said S. Anthony had at different times performed in the regiment, in consequence of his having a place in it: among others, he had restored a favourite lap-dog to the commanding officer's lady, which had been stolen from her, and which she had despaired of ever seeing again, till her Father Director advised her to importune S. Anthony, which she had no sooner done, than the dog was brought back to her! He also saved a poor soldier, who called upon him when drowning, as he passed a deep river, by miraculously throwing a rope in his way! Another had recovered from the small-pox, by thinking on S. Anthony, and this after the rattle was in his throat, and he had been given over by the surgeon-major of the regiment! In short, another certificate related, that a drummer of the regiment being in bed with his wife, and their child sleeping between them, when he waked in the morning, found a large snake, which had crept in under the door of the hut, in bed with them, sucking his wife's breast, while she was fast asleep, with its tail in the mouth of the child, who was sucking at it very contentedly: at sight of such an extraordinary appearance, the drummer immediately invoked the captain of the regiment, S. Anthony, who inspired him with presence of mind and courage, sufficient to seize at once, the head and tail of the serpent; by this time, overloaded with the quantity of milk he had sucked, and setting a foot upon each, secured him from doing them any mischief, till, with his hanger, which lay at his bed's-head, he cut the animal's head off, and mangled it so, as to prevent it from hurting them. Thus the man, wife and child, had a miraculous escape.

The navy of the Portuguese, according to Twiss, consists only of 11 men of war, and four frigates; several of the former are commanded by British officers.

CHAP. VI. State of Literature.

LITERATURE seems to be at a very low ebb in Portugal. At Coimbra and Evora, there are two universities; but whilst the papal power continues at its present height in that country, science is like to make but an indifferent figure. Lisbon has only some schools and a royal academy established for Portuguese history, whose motto, restituet omni promises mighty things, and some good historical pieces have been already published in it. The university of Coimbra, is said to be much the most considerable, and to consist of 5000 students; but then they admit children before they are well read, so that our grammar-schools may be put on a footing with many of their colleges. It is likewise said, that they do not apply themselves so much to philosophy, divinity, or physic in these universities, as to the study of the civil and canon-law; which is very much attended to in Portugal. And besides these, each student makes himself acquainted with the customs of his particular province, by which the magistrates are often governed in their decisions.

There is likewise an academy of history, antiquities, and languages at Santarene; and at S. Thomas's there is an academy of sciences on the plan of that of Paris. In 1746, an Italian capuchin, published a work at Valencia in Spain, in the Portuguese language, consisting of four volumes in quarto, entitled Verbadeiro Methodo de estudar, and dedicated to the kingdom of Portugal, setting forth the wretched state of the sciences there, and the contemptible manner in which they are taught. He even charges the Portuguese with aiming at the perpetuity of ignorance, and the triumph of barbarism. He decries their schools as the places of retreat for those errors, which, by Descartes and Newton, had been driven from other parts of Europe; and at their universities, the mind (he says) is obscured with the abstruce disquisition of scholastic learning. According to him, Gallileo, Descartes, Gassendi and Newton, are in Portugal, the names of atheists and heretics, not to be mentioned, but with marks of execration; and lastly he affirms, that the professor of anatomy in a Portuguese university, is allowed only two sheep a year for demonstrating his lectures. If this be going too far, let us hear what a Portuguese himself, D'Olivaira says. In the preface to the first volume of his memoirs, he uses these remarkable words: 'In our country we live in ignorance without knowing it; but in going out of Portugal, our eyes seem suddenly to open, and we immediately see that ignorance, in which we were involved. The ignorance I speak of (says he) is evident: foreigners allow us understanding, docility, morals, discernment, and a genius for comprehending what is commendable and good; but our conceit, our gravity, our confined manner of living, which deprives us of all freedom of thought, exposes us to just censures, and give rise to those hateful opinions which other nations entertain of us. The main source of our ignorance, and a miserable cause of offence to all nations, is the custom in Portugal, of prohibiting such numbers of books.

Baretti, in mentioning the state of literature in this country, observes, that few of their writers ever had a name, even before the earthquake committed that ravage on their literature. Ossorio, the Latin historian, was certainly a name of some consideration in the literary world; and the fame of Camoens, the Portuguese Epic Poet, has travelled beyond Alcenteja and Estramadura. Yet the works of these two, their most celebrated authors, are more commended than read. One of their sacred writers, (adds Baretti) called Vieira, is in high esteem with the Portuguese; I opened one of his volumes in the library of the royal convent at Mafra, and chance directed my eyes to a sermon, where the perfections of the circular figure were pompously enumerated; after which the Lusitanian Cicero, as he is styled by the Portuguese, proceeds to tell his audience that if the Supreme Being were to shew himself under any geometrical figure, it would be the circular one, in preference to the triangular, the square, the pentagonal, the duodecagonal, or any other known to the geometricians. Such is the display of literature, by an author in high repute with the Portuguese.

They have a translation of the operas of Metastasio, to which by way of embellishment, the translator has added scenes of his own, in which, when the heroes of the opera go out, their place is supplied by the servants, chamber-maid, and nurses of the principal characters, who are introduced, holding dialogues together. Achilles has his running footman, Semiramis her dry-nurse; and Deidamia has a little prating hussey of a cook-maid, who bids the Negro-boy carry chocolate to his mistress. Such is the dramatic taste in Portugal; of which we have already given some considerable specimens, under the article of amusements.

The Portuguese, however, have a dictionary of their own language, which is much commended both by themselves and by foreigners. But it does not appear to have been the work of a native. It is said to be a compilation of Father Bluteau, a French Jesuit. It is printed in eight or nine large quarto volumes.

"In a medical treatise, (says Baretti) that I met with in the royal library, I read of a remedy for sore eyes, not a little curious. 'The person thus afflicted, (remarks the Portuguese Physician) must not read, nor fix his eyes upon any thing that is white.'

The Escolas Necessidades, the principal seminary in Lisbon, is a Philippine convent; and, of course, the professors are Philippine friars. The Jesuits were formerly indulged with the exclusive privilege of instructing the Portuguese youth at Lisbon; but, soon after their expulsion, this honour was conferred on the Philippines. "It is a certain fact, (says Baretti) that the Jesuits, in Italy, endeavoured to subvert all literature." His arguments in favour of this position are, that, before this order was instituted, there were in that country so many eminent writers, in various branches of science, from Dante to Galileo, as few countries could boast. "But, (says Baretti) the Jesuits had no sooner got possession of the schools, under pretext of instructing our youth gratis, than there was an almost total cessation of historians, politicians, philosophers, and poets. They began by discouraging an application to the Greek language, asserting that it was totally unnecessary. Afterwards, by means of their voluminous Latin grammars, they rendered the study of this language, next to impossible; as it is next to impossible to learn any thing by the assistance of something equally unknown to us. They even contaminated our language, by inundating it with such a deluge of equivocal wit, as to make us the ridicule of those nations of whom we were before the admiration.

In Portugal, to have substituted the Philippians for the Jesuits, has not added much to the literary fame of the country. It is however intended to put the seminaries in the capital on a more respectable footing than they are at present. A university is to be established at Lisbon, into which some Coimbra professors are to be incorporated, and the ancient one in that city to be totally suppressed. Perhaps the time is fast approaching, when the Portuguese will likewise emerge from ignorance and superstition, and put themselves on a level, at least, with some of the Catholic nations.

CHAP. VII. Religion.

THAT Christianity was propagated here by the Apostles James and John, so early as the first century, which the Portuguese assert, cannot be proved. But it is certain, as appears from Tertullian, that it was received all over Spain, to which Portugal was then annexed, in the second century; and in the third, new parishes were formed. In succeeding times the Moors and Jews, who had been much increasing, lived intermingled with the Christians; and, notwithstanding the severe persecutions, under John II. whereby they were forced, externally, to acknowledge the Romish church, and though all exercise of the Jewish religion be still prohibited by the fundamental laws of the kingdom, yet there are great numbers of secret Jews among the Portuguese, even at present, and those too even among the nobility, bishops, prebends, monks, and nuns; and the very inquisitors themselves. Many, unable to conceal themselves, escape into Holland, and there openly profess Judaism. The established religion of the country, however, is the Roman Catholic: and the inquisition, which was introduced by King John III. and has since been set up throughout all the Portuguese dominions, Brazil excepted, is very active in detecting heresies and heretics; and no less rigorous in punishing them. Of the inquisitions in Portugal there are four high courts, at Lisbon, Coimbra, Evora, and Goa in the East Indies, each of which is independent, though with some subordination to the supreme council of inquisition. Impious and inhuman as this tribunal is, yet its festival, or solemn burnings, called auto da fé, or 'the act of faith,' afford the highest delight to the bigoted Portuguese, who, whilst their fellow-creatures, the supposed heretics, are burning in flames, shout Que grande clemencia! Bente abencoado sea o santo officio! i. e. 'O what great goodness! Praised be the holy office!' Even the principal nobility deem it an honour to lead the condemned criminals, like mean servants, to the stake. King John IV. however, in some measure, curtailed the power of the holy office, commanding that all its sentences should be laid before the parliament; and that the accused should be allowed counsel for their defence. He likewise further enacted, that only blasphemy, sodomy, polygamy, heresy, sorcery, Pagan customs, and the conversion of the Jews, are to come under their cognizance. To be a Christam Velho, i. e. an ancient Christian, or of an ancient Christian race, is accounted, in Portugal, a very great preeminence, and far above a Christam-novo, or newly converted Christian; or a temparte de Christam novo, a half new converted Christian, by which last are to be understood, those whose new converted ancestors married ancient Christians.

No sovereigns have shewn themselves more zealous for the Catholic religion than the Kings of Spain and Portugal, who have suffered the inquisition to ravage their territories for such a number of years. Nor are the people less devout than their sovereigns. It is not unusual even for the fair sex to resort to the churches seven or eight times a day, though this has been suggested to arise from an inclination to gallantry and rambling abroad, they being never suffered to leave their houses but to go to their devotions. The Portuguese are, in general, great admirers of the external pomp and splendour of church worship. In the holy week they practise great severities upon themselves; some will procure themselves to be fastened to a cross, in their shirts, with their arms extended, in imitation of our blessed Saviour, uttering all the time the most dismal groans and lamentations. Others will walk barefooted, over rocks and mountains, to some distant shrine, in order to perform their devotions. During Lent, in those parts of Portugal which are at a distance from the sea, they eat only the entrails of beasts. At this holy season, friars and priests may be seen in all the great streets and squares, preaching to the people, but applying to their passions rather than to their understandings. The preacher frequently beats his breast, and weeps, in the midst of his discourse, and the people follow his example.

Solemn processions are very frequent in Portugal, but the most considerable one is on Good Friday, when all the religious orders attend with the members of the several tribunals and councils, and somtimes even the king himself, followed by his whole court, with wax torches in their hands; and the servants of the nobility, and people of distinction, following their masters with lighted flambeaux. Upon such an occasion every thing wears a mournful appearance, the guards, who likewise attend, have their arms covered with black, as are the drums, which beat a dead march, in the same manner that they do at the funeral of a general. The trumpets, and other musical instruments, sound most dismally; and all the standards and crosses are covered with black crape. True penitents, in these processions, lash and cut themselves unmercifully, hoping to implore the protection of Heaven by this holy violence; whilst others are no less severe upon themselves, to shew their passion for their mistresses, who stand in balconies to see the procession.

Such are the religious ceremonies of the Portuguese, on days of fasting and humiliation; but on their festivals the scene is very different; then all the treasures of their churches are exposed to public view. The balconies and windows are hung with tapestry, and the ladies, dressed in a most magnificent attire, are permitted to view the procession of the images, without any lattices before them. The images, together with the relics and treasures of the churches, are on these occasions accompanied by the nobility, in their habits of gala, preceded by music and dancing.

These festivals are generally concluded by some comedy, wretchedly acted, containing a representation of the life and actions of some of their saints, taken from their legends; and from the familiarity with which not only the saints, but even our Saviour is treated, seem calculated rather to ridicule than promote Christianity.

The following anecdote will shew the extreme bigotry that reigns among the most exalted ranks of people in this country, and which could not be carried to a greater height even in the capital of the Papal dominions. Some thieves, during the reign of the present Queen, having broken into a country church, about four leagues from Lisbon, and, rummaging in the dark for plate, and other plunder, among the altars, happened to overturn or break open a pix, containing several consecrated wafers; which were found next morning, strewed on the ground, near the altar; and, to add to the misfortune, some of them were still missing. When these circumstances were reported to the Queen, they threw her into the deepest affliction; she shut herself up, and was invisible for three days; after which, she said, all the misfortunes of her late father's reign, and the judgments with which God had visited him, such as earthquakes, the expulsion of the Jesuits, and the war which followed, were, all together, nothing, when compared to the grievous insult, offered to the body of our blessed Saviour himself; and which it became her duty to apologize for, after the most signal manner possible; and, after holding a consultation with the gravest and most orthodox divines, the whole court were ordered into deep mourning for nine days, at the end of which there was a general procession to the different churches, in which the Queen herself, and the court walked in procession, and which was called the procession of the disaggravation, and, by performing of which, they conceived, they should appease the wrath of the Deity, who had suffered such a gross affront, by a few wafers being thrown about and lost; as if there were any connexion between the Omnipotent Creator of the universe and a wafer.

What a crowd of reflexions does not such flagrant and inveterate folly present to the consideration of every sensible and serious person! Here we plainly see into what a train of gross, ludicrous, and impious situations, this belief of the real presence must continually bring them; for ever led astray by the insolent and blasphemous opinion, that the Deity resembles a cruel and suspicious tyrant, they think to appease every supposed insult offered him, by slavish and over-weening humiliations, in order to anticipate the effects of that vengeance he was just about to wreak upon them.

The number of convents in Portugal is said to be no fewer than 900; and most of them are very rich. The most remarkable and wealthy is the convent of the Cistercians at Alcobaca.

With respect to ecclesiastical persons, John V. at a very great expence, procured a patriarch, obtaining, in 1716, the Pope's licence to raise his court-chapel at Lisbon to a patriarchate; and, in the year following, the new patriarch, who also retained the title of first court-chaplain, was installed, with very great solemnity. In 1739, the Pope further granted, that the patriarch should always be a cardinal, and of the royal family. The patriarchal church at Lisbon was erected into a palatinate, and the fourth part of all the ecclesiastical benefices in Portugal assigned for the support of the new canons. Next are three archbishops, who rank with marquisses; and of them, the first is the Archbishop of Braganza, who is primate of the kingdom. The bishops hold the rank of counts. Exclusive of those in Europe, the Portuguese have also archbishops and bishops, in the other three parts of the world.

The King, besides the nomination of all bishops, receives one fourth of their revenue, but this is generally given away in pensions. The Pope confirms the bishops, publishes his bulls in the kingdom, without any previous consent of the King, and, by his legate, governs the clergy; who with respect to taxes and contributions, depend upon him. He has also the gift of many small prebends. The sums arising to the legates, from these prerogatives are thought to exceed the revenues of the crown, and the nuncios seldom fail of realizing immense fortunes before they return to Rome.

The pomp and splendour with which the sovereigns of Portugal attend high mass on gala days, is extremely magnificent and superb. I was present (says Baretti) at a grand gala, instituted to commemorate the narrow escape of the late king, who had very near been treacherously murdered by the duke Aveiros, and his associates. Two coaches full of priests, led the procession. Fifty of the patriarch's servants, two and two, came next, dressed in blue liveries, trimmed with crimson silk lace, all uncovered, their hair well powdered, and wearing large cloaks reaching to the ground. Then followed seven carriages, belonging to his excellence. The two first were occupied by his eminence's ecclesiastical officers. In the third, was the Patriarch himself. Excepting the Pope, there is no ecclesiastic in the whole world, surrounded with so much pomp, as the patriarch of Portugal. Two priests walked by the side of his carriage, each carrying in their hands an umbrella, fringed with gold. The patriarch's coach was lined both within and without with blue velvet, and gilt and painted with great taste and elegance. His state carriage followed after, so very rich and fine (says Baretti) that queen Semiramis would not have thought it unworthy of her. The three other coaches were likewise filled with his attendants. Each of the four first were drawn by six pied horses; that is, horses streaked with black and white, which are not so uncommon in Portugal, as they are in other countries. They all galloped, but their galloping was so close and short, that the attendants on foot could keep up with it, though they walked with great slowness and solemnity. The three next carriages, had each six very fine mules. The patriarch was dressed in his pontificate.

Whilst this noble procession was advancing towards the cathedral, 20 other carriages, each drawn by six mules, made their appearance, filled with the dignitaries of the Lisbon cathedral.

The King then came in a coach and six, the horses black and white, like the patriarch's, surrounded with his body guards. The queen followed immediately after, with her daughters, all in one coach, with four more coaches, each drawn by six horses. Her majesty was surrounded by a troop of her own horse guards. She and the princesses were most magnificently dressed, wearing very large hoops, their heads, necks, breasts, arms, waists, and feet, glittering with jewels.

In the pew, they all knelt, except the queen, who sat down, and began to read and kiss the leaves of her book. As she did this repeatedly every instant, I asked the meaning of it (says Baretti) and was told, that her majesty always kissed the name of God, the Virgin Mary, and all saints and angels in every book she read: a custom, somewhat similar to that of Mr. Boyle, who used always to bow, when the name of God was mentioned.

As soon as they entered the church, the patriarch quitting his throne, went to the altar, and celebrated a high mass, assisted by his dignitaries and canons, with the ceremonies observed by the cardinals to the pope, when his holiness officiates in the most solemn functions. During the mass, the royal band played and sung most gloriously. The ceremony lasted a full hour, and was followed by the patriarchial benediction; after which, the company broke up, and went home, tired and fatigued with the excessive heat, which, as the sun shone very bright, was quite intolerable.

At some distance from the cathedral, was a batallion of foot guards, who were not allowed to fire upon this occasion, as is the custom in some other catholic countries, lest the horses and mules might be frightened, and trample upon the people. I was also much pleased (adds Baretti) to hear several of the officers repeatedly order the horseguards to keep close together, and ride gently that no person might be hurt. This is a degree of attention in the military of Portugal, which travellers will not find in all countries, and as connected with the government, ought to be put in counterpoise to the calumnies heaped upon the whole nation by Costigan in his letters.

DIRECTIONS FOR PLACING THE CUTS, From Vol. XV. to the End.

VOL. XVI.

- JOHN of Procida to face Page 81

- Festival of Rosalia 130

- Archimedes summoned before the Roman General 171

- Gozon killing the Crocodile 203

- Map of the Pope's Territories 225

- Plan of Rome 229

- Fall of Tivoli 343

- Fall of Terni 344

- View of Lericci 352

VOL. XVII.

- Guido Aretinus presenting his Scale of Music to Pope John XX. to face the Title

- Celestin III. kicking the Crown from the Head of the Emperor Henry VI. 2

- Map of Tuscany 96

- Lake of Nemi 121

- Port of Leghorn 125

- Death of Count Ugelino and his two Sons 130

- Map of the Venetian Territories 169

- Plan of Venice 176

- A View in Venice 184

- Venetian Wedding 272

- Map of Sardinian Dominions 350

- Map of the Island of Sardinia 350

- Alarming the Stranger 366

VOL. XVIII.

- Plan of Turin to face Page 10

- Plan of Genoa 189

- Mad. Thomasa at her Devotions 206

- Map of Switzerland 269

- Death of Albert 288

- Swiss Peasants 321

- Valley of Lauterbrannin 328

VOL. XIX.

- Portrait of the Author to face the Title

- Plan of Geneva 97

- Map of Corsica 189

- Corsicans 238

- Map of Spain and Portugal 261

- Spanish Mulateers 306

- Plan of Madrid 353

VOL. XX.

- Revolution of Portugal to face the Title

- Biscayan Peasants 100

- View of Malaga from the Sea 141

- Sir Walter Raleigh and his Black 169

- View of the Rock of Gibraltar 191

- Chart of the Straights of Gibraltar 195

- Plan of Lisbon 286

- Portuguese Peasants 329

At the END — These were designed for future Numbers.

- Portrait of Lord Amherst

- Map of America

- Map of the South Sea Islands

Engraved by •• •. •all Engraver to the King 〈…〉 Painting by Humphries.
JEFFERY LORD AMHERST.

MAP of AMERICA with the New discovered Islands.

A CHART of the NEW DISCOVER'D ISLANDS, in the SOUTH SEAS.

MAP of AFRICA.

Information about this book

Title statement

The habitable world described: or the present state of the people in all parts of the globe, from north to south; shewing the situation, extent, climate, ... including all the new discoveries: ... With a great variety of maps and copper-plates, ... By the Rev. Dr. John Trusler. ... [pt.20]

Trusler, John, 1735-1820.

Publication

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University of Oxford Text Archive
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ota@oucs.ox.ac.uk

ID [ota]

http://ota.ox.ac.uk/id/5054

ID [isbn10]

1106020537

ID [isbn13]

9781106020536

ID [TCP]

K096120.020

ID [BIBNO]

CW3301492430

ID [ECHG]

0161800120

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Distributed by the University of Oxford under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License

Source

— The habitable world described: or the present state of the people in all parts of the globe, from north to south; shewing the situation, extent, climate, ... including all the new discoveries: ... With a great variety of maps and copper-plates, ... By the Rev. Dr. John Trusler. ..., Trusler, John, 1735-1820.. 20v.,plates : maps ; 8⁰. London :: printed for the author, at the Literary-Press, no. 62, Wardour-Street, Soho; and sold by all booksellers,. 1788-97.. [Vols. 1-3 dated 1788; 4-5, 1789; 6-8, 1790; 9-10, 1791; 11-12, 1792; 13-14, 1793; 15-16, 1794; 17-18, 1795; 19, 1796; 20, 1797.] [Each volume has an additional titlepage, engraved: 'The habitable world described. Inscribed by permission to .. Frederick, Duke of York, &c. &c.'.] [The engraved titlepages are dated: vols. 1-11, 1788; 12-15, 1790; 16-19, 1795.] [Vols. 16-18 bear the imprint: London, printed for the author, and sold by J. Parsons.] [Vols. 19-20 bear the imprint: London, printed for the author, and sold by L. Legoux.] [Reproduction of original from the British Library.] [English Short Title Catalog, ESTCT120079.] [Electronic data. Farmington Hills, Mich. : Thomson Gale, 2003. Page image (PNG). Digitized image of the microfilm version produced in Woodbridge, CT by Research Publications, 1982-2002 (later known as Primary Source Microfilm, an imprint of the Gale Group).]

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