The habitable world described: or the present state of the people in all parts of the globe, from north to south; shewing the situation, extent, climate, ... including all the new discoveries: ... With a great variety of maps and copper-plates, ... By the Rev. Dr. John Trusler. ... [pt.14]

Table of contents

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- [engravedtitlepage]

- [titlepage]

- TURKEY IN ASIA.

- CHAP. I. General Division of the Country; Mountains, Rivers, &c.

- CHAP. II. Asia-Minor.

- CHAP. III. Turcomania, Curdistan, and Diarbeck.

- CHAP. IV. Irac-Arabi, and Georgia.

- CHAP. V. Syria, Country, Climate, Winds, Rivers, Mountains, Productions.

- CHAP. VI. Pachalie of Aleppo. Division of the Country and Cities.

- CHAP. VII. Pachalie of Tripoli.

- CHAP. VIII. Pachalie of Acre.

- CHAP. IX. Pachalie of Damascus.

- CHAP. X. Of the different Inhabitants of Syria.

- CHAP. X. Of the Druses, and Mutuales.

- CHAP. XI. Palestine.

- CHAP. XIII. A Review of the Present State of Syria and Egypt, with occasional Remarks on the Turkish Empire in general. With respect to the Government.

- CHAP. XIV. Of the Administration of Justice.

- CHAP. XV. Of the Influence of Religion.

- CHAP. XVI. State of the Peasants, and of Agriculture.

- CHAP. XVII. Of the Artisans, Traders, and Commerce.

- CHAP. XVIII. Of the Arts, Sciences, and Ignorance of the People.

- CHAP XIX. The Manners and Character of the Inhabitants of Syria.

- CHAP. XX. Of the Religion and Funerals of the Ancient Egyptians.

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- CHAP. I. A Description of Egypt, from Volney, Savary, Norden, and Tott. Country, Climate, &c.

- CHAP. II. Of the River Nile.

- CHAP. III. Of the Agriculture, and Manner of raising Seed.

- CHAP. IV. Of the Cities, Grand Cairo, &c.

- CHAP. V. Of the different Inhabitants.

- CHAP. VI. Of their Character, Private Life, Food, Occupations, Amusements.

- FATIMA.

- CHAP. VII. Of the Marriages, Education, and Paternal Authority.

END OF VOL. XIV.

MAP of TURKEY IN ASIA From D'Anville.

THE Habitable World DESCRIBED.

Inscribed by Permission to His Royal Highness Frederick: DUKE OF YORK, &c. &c.

LONDON: Published as the Act directs, by the Author, Sold at the Literary Press. No. 62. Wardour Street, Soho.

1790.

THE HABITABLE WORLD DESCRIBED, OR THE PRESENT STATE OF THE PEOPLE IN ALL PARTS OF THE GLOBE, FROM NORTH TO SOUTH; SHEWING The Situation, Extent, Climate, Productions, Animals, &c. &c. of the different Kingdoms and States; Including all the new Discoveries: TOGETHER WITH The Genius, Manners, Customs, Trade, Religion, Forms of Government, &c. of the Inhabitants, and every thing respecting them, that can be either entertaining or informing to the Reader, collected from the earliest and latest Accounts of Historians and Travellers of all Nations; With some that have never been published in this Kingdom; And nothing advanced but on the best Authorities.

WITH A great Variety of MAPS and COPPER-PLATES, engraved in a capital Style, the Subjects of which are mostly new, and such as have never yet been given in any English work.

BY THE REV. DR. JOHN TRUSLER.

VOL. XIV.

LONDON: Printed for the AUTHOR, at the LITERARY-PRESS, No. 62, WARDOUR STREET, SOHO; and sold by all Booksellers.

M DCC XCIII.

TURKEY IN ASIA.

CHAP. I. General Division of the Country; Mountains, Rivers, &c.

HAVING spoken of the Turkish provinces in Europe, we shall now treat of those in Asia; which are situated between the twenty-seventh and forty-fifth degrees of longitude, and the thirtieth and forty-sixth degrees of N. latitude. They are bounded by Tartary and the Black Sea, on the North; by Persia, on the East; by Arabia and the Levant, on the South; and by the Hellespont and the Archipelago, on the West.

The principal mountains in Asiatic Turkey, are, Olympus, Ida, Taurus, Anti-Taurus, and those of Caramania or Cilicia; all of them situated in Natolia, or Lesser Asia; Mount Caucasus, now called the mountains of Dagistan; the mountains of Armenia, among which is Mount Ararat; the mountains of Curdistan, or Assyria, which lie between Persia and Turkey; and the mountains of Palestine, particularly Hermon and Lebanon.

The seas bordering on this country, are, the Euxine, or Black Sea; the Bosphorus of Constantinople; the Propontis, or sea of Marmora; the Hellespont, and the Aegean sea, or Archipelago, which divide Asia from Europe; and the Levant, or White Sea, as the Turks call it, being the East end of the Mediterranean; to which may be added, the gulf of Persia, or Bassora: these seas, and the Red Sea, which divides Asia from Africa, make part of the grand Signior's titles; who stiles himself Lord of the Black, White, and Red Seas. Never was a country more advantageously situated for navigation, and foreign traffic; all the merchandize of China and India, being brought up the Red Sea, and the gulf of Persia, and, by the other seas, distributed to all the countries in this quarter of the globe.

The chief rivers are, the Euphrates, Tigris, Orontes, Maeander, Sarabat, Halys, Kara, and Jordan. The Euphrates and Tigris rise in the North, and, taking their course South-east, inclose that fine plain in Mesopotamia, now called Diarbeck; which, by some, is supposed to have been the seat of Paradise. Certain it is, that the city of Babylon, the largest and most beautiful city that ever stood upon the earth, was situated in this province, on both banks of the Euphrates; the river running through the midst of it. The Euphrates and Tigris unite their streams below Babylon; and then, dividing again, fall into the Persian gulf, by several channels below Bassora; from whence that sea is often called the gulf of Bassora. The city of Nineveh, little inferior to Babylon, stood upon the Tigris; which, from its rapid stream, obtained that name.

The river Orontes rises in Mount Hermon; and, running North-west, falls into the Levant sea, a little below Antioch, which city stands upon it. The river Maeander, now Madre, rises in Mount Taurus; and, running to the west, in a winding course, falls into the Archipelago, near Ephesus. From this river, all serpentine, or winding streams, are called Maeanders. The river Sarabat rises in Natolia; and, running South-west, falls into the Archipelago, North of Smyrna. As to the little river Granicus, where Alexander obtained his first victory over the Persians, it is so small a stream, that we seldom see it on any map; but, from the concurrent relation of most writers, it falls into the Hellespont to the Eastward of Alydos, or the Dardanells. The river Kara rises in Natolia Proper; and, running almost due East, falls into the Euphrates. The Jordan, which is so named from two little streams, Jor and Dan, rising at the foot of Anti-Lebanus, and, after a course of about twenty miles, uniting in one, is not a river of any great length, depth, or breadth, equal to its fame; its whole course not being above 150 miles; its breadth not above twenty yards, and its depth not sufficient for navigation. In its passage into the Dead Sea, where it empties itself, it makes two lakes; the first called Meron, of small extent, and dry in summer; the second, called the sea of Gallilee, or the lake of Tiberias, or lake of Genezareth, one hundred furlongs in length, and forty in breadth.

The Dead Sea, as it is called, from a false opinion, that it killed even the birds that flew over it, is, by experience, known not to deserve such a terrible name; it is, indeed, extremely salt, and the water so strong, that it will hardly admit a human body to sink, and has a bituminous stench; it is said that no fish, or other living creatures, can exist in this sea; but, as fish-shells are found on its shore, there is reason to doubt the truth of this assertion. Its extent, from North to South, is seventy miles, and sixteen from East to West; it was formerly a plain, on which stood the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, and two others, destroyed by fire from heaven.

MAP of ASIA MINOR &c.

The principal provinces in Asiatic Turkey, are Asia-Minor, or Natolia; Turcomania, or Armenia-Major; Georgia; Curdistan, or Assyria; Diarbeck, or Mesopotamia; Chaldaea; Syria; Palestine; Arabia Petraea, and Arabia Deserta; of each of which we shall speak in their turns.

CHAP. II. Asia-Minor.

WE shall begin with Asia-Minor, which lies opposite to Constantinople. This province is bounded by the Bosphorus of Thrace, and the Black Sea, to the North; by Georgia, and the river Euphrates, which divide it to the East, from Turcomania; on the South it is bounded by the Mediterranean, and by the Archipelago on the West.

Asia-Minor is again sub-divided into four parts; Natolia Proper, (the whole circle of Asia-Minor, being sometimes called Natolia) which contains the Western part; Amasia, the Northern; Aladulia, the Eastern; and Caramania, the Southern part.

Natolia Proper, which comprises much the largest sub-division of Asia-Minor, has in it many fine provinces. This portion of Asia-Minor has been subdivided, by ancient and modern geographers, into ten provinces. Pontus Paphalagoniae, Galatia, Phrygia Major, Lydia or Maenia, Doris, Caria, Ionia, Eolis, Mysia, comprehending Phrygia Minor and Bithynia.

The principal cities in these provinces, of which we propose to treat, ancient as well as modern, are Smyrna, Ephesus, Prusa or Bursa, Pergamus, Troy, Nice and Nicomedia; besides some others in this, and the rest of the provinces of Asia; which, though now in ruins, have been memorable in times past, either for their splendor, or as having been the birth-place of some great man of antiquity; or, for some other particular worthy of being recorded. We shall begin first with Smyrna.

Smyrna is situated in 38 degrees of North latitude, at the extremity of a large bay in the Aegean sea, opposite to the island of Scio, and about eight days journey by land from Constantinople. It is related of Alexander the Great, that, after hunting, he fell asleep on Mount Pagus, beneath a plane-tree, which grew by a fountain near a temple of the Nemeses; and that the goddess directed him in a vision, to found there a city for the Smyrneans; a people of Ephesus then living in villages. The work was begun by Antigonus, and finished by Lysimachus.

The site, selected by Alexander for this people, was such as the ancient founders commonly preferred. Their cities, in general, were seated by some hill, or mountain; which, as this did, supplied them with marble, and was commodious, as well for defence, as ornament. The side or slope, afforded a secure situation for the seats of the stadium and theatres, which rose from its quarry to advantage; and rendered the view as captivating as it was noble. The Greeks were, of old, accounted happy in chusing their situations. They were studious to unite beauty with strength, and good ports with a fertile soil. The Romans, on the contrary, were attentive to articles neglected by them, to the paving of ways, to aqueducts, and common shores.

Smyrna flourished as Apollo had foretold; and, under the Romans, was esteemed the most beautiful of the Ionian cities. The streets were as strait as the site would admit, and excellently disposed. The ways were paved. Both above and below were large quadrangular porticoes. There was also a library; and, besides the other requisites of a noble city, a port which shut up; but, from an omission of the architects, the want of sewers occasioned a great nuisance. It was much frequented by the sophists; and, with Ephesus, became renowned as a school of oratory and science. It has been exalted with high encomiums, and stiled the lovely, the crown of Ionia, the ornament of Asia.

The devastations committed in Asia-Minor, and the changes effected by the rivers on the sea-coast, have rendered Smyrna the only considerable mart by the sea-side; and, in consequence, the principal centre of the traffic of the country. One lucrative branch of its commerce failed, during the troubles in Persia, when the throne was usurped by Nadir Shah. The accustomed communication by caravans was then interrupted; and trade, meeting with obstructions in the old course, which it had held for ages, turned away into new channels. But, with this loss, Smyrna continues a large and flourishing city. The bay, besides numerous small craft, is daily frequented by ships of burthen, from the chief ports in Europe; and the factors, who are a respectable body, live in affluence, and acquire fortunes.

The conflux at Smyrna, of people of various nations, differing in dress, in manners, in language, and in religion, is very considerable. The Turks occupy by far, the greater part of the towns. The other tribes live in separate quarters.

The Protestants, and Roman Catholics, have their chapels; the Jews, a synagogue or two; the Armenians, a large and handsome church with a burying ground by it. The Greeks, before the fire, had two churches. They applied, by their bishop at Constantinople, for leave to rebuild that which was destroyed; but the sum demanded, was too exorbitant to be given.

The factors, and other Europeans settled at Smyrna, generally inter-marry with the Greeks, or with natives of the same religion. Their ladies wear the oriental dress, consisting of large trowsers, or breeches, which reach to the ancle; long vests of rich silk, or of velvet, lined in winter with costly furs; and round their waists, an embroidered zone, with clasps of silver or gold. Their hair is plaited, and descends down the back, often in great profusion. The girls have, sometimes, above twenty thick tresses, besides two or three encircling the head as a coronet, and set off with flowers and diamonds. They commonly stain it of a chesnut colour, which is the most admired. Their apparel and carriage are antique. It is remarkable, that the trowsers are mentioned in a fragment of Sappho. The habit is light, loose, and cool, adapted to the climate. When they visit each other, they put over the head a thin transparent veil of muslin, with a border of gold tissue. A janissary walks before, and two, or more, handmaids follow them through the streets. When assembled, they are seen reclined in various attitudes, or sitting cross-legged on a sofa. Girls of inferior rank from the islands, especially Tino, abound; and are many of them as beautiful in person, as picturesque in appearance. They excel in a glow of colour, which seems the effect of a warm sun, ripening the human body, as it were, into uncommon perfection.

The principal buildings in Smyrna are the mosques, the public baths, the bezesten, and the khans, or inns. The khans have, in general, a quadrangle or square area, and sometimes a fountain in the middle. The upper story consists of an open gallery, with a range of apartments, and often a small mosque. Below are the camels with their burthens, and the mules, or horses. A servant dusts the floor of a vacant chamber when a traveller arrives; and, spreading a mat, which is all the furniture, leaves him in possession. The streets of Smyrna, a few excepted, are very narrow, and exceeding intricate.

The lofty mountains which shelter Smyrna, and leaves it only open to the sea, concenter the rays of the sun, as it were, into a focus. The intense heat commences in June, and continues without intermission to the end of August, or the middle of September. During this period, if the inbat fail, the inhabitants are distressed, and even pant for breath. The ground is then burnt up, and has large chasms and fissures, which, as some have imagined, give vent to bituminous vapours. These, if confined, are supposed to occasion earthquakes by their explosion. A year seldom passes without a shock or two, but generally slight, and less hurtful than alarming. They happen chiefly in spring and autumn, when the weather is calm; and it has been remarked at those times, that the sea commonly withdraws from the beach, and the water is unusually low. Besides this calamity, Smyrna is visited almost annually by the plague. If the distemper rages, the consuls and factors either retire into the country, or, as the phrase is, shut up; not admitting even the market-man to enter their gates. Many of the people abandon their dwellings, and live abroad in tents. The islanders return home, and the streets of the Frank's quarter, which is exceedingly populous, almost cease to be trodden.

The Turks chiefly bury without the town, where the inclosures are very extensive; it being their custom not to open the grounds filled with bodies, till a long term of years has elapsed. In their cemetaries, and in those of the Christians and Jews, are found many marble slabs, and fragments of architecture. The English ground, which is at a distance from the Frank quarter, at the opposite end of the town, is walled in; and contains some monuments worthy notice, for the beauty of their sculpture. These were brought from Italy. Mr. Bouverie, the friend and companion of Mr. Dawkins, and Mr. Wood, is interred there and has over him a plain marble, with a long Latin inscription. He died at Magnesia, by the Maeander.

Smyrna is well supplied with provisions. The sheep have broad tails, hanging down like an apron; some weighing eight, ten, or more pounds. These are eaten as a delicacy; and the fat, before they are full grown, accounted as delicious as marrow. The flesh of wild hogs is common, and in esteem among the Europeans and Greeks, who purchase the animal, when killed by the Turks. Fine fish is taken in the bay. Hares, with game and fowl, are cheap. The partridges are bigger than those of the English, of a different colour and species, with red legs.

The olive-groves furnish doves, field-fares, thrushes, quails, snipes, and the like, in abundance. A variety of excellent wines are produced in the country, or imported from the islands. The fruits are of an exquisite flavour. Among those of the gourd kind, the water-melon, which grows to a great size, is not only highly palatable, but so innocent as to be allowed to the sick in fevers. The figs are deservedly famous. The rich clusters of grapes are as wholesome as beautiful. Many on the stalk, are found converted by the sun into raisins. Large and heavy bunches are hung on strings, and preserved in the shops for sale in winter. Lemons and oranges, with citrons, are in great plenty. The sherbets made with the juice of the two former, newly gathered, in water sweetened with white honey, are as cooling as grateful to the taste. Coffee is brought from Arabia. We partook, says Chandler, from whom is extracted this account, almost daily, of eatables unknown to us before; and, in a short time, were reconciled to the custom of sleeping after dinner, which is recommended as conducing, and even necessary, to health in that climate.

Our situation was not, however, without grievances. We were much infected by a minute fly, which irritates by its puncture; and, settling on the white wall, eludes the angry pursuer with surprizing activity. But this species, and the other insects which annoyed us, were petty offenders, compared with the mosquitoes, or large gnats, which tormented us most exceedingly by their loud noise, and by repeated attacks upon our skin, when it was naked, and lightly clothed; perforating it with their acute proboscis, and sucking our blood till they were full. A small fiery tumour then ensues, which will not soon subside, unless the patient has been here naturalized, as it were by residence; but the pain is much allayed by lemon-juice. At night, they raged furiously about our beds, assaulting the gauze veil, our defence; which, thin as it was, augmented the violent heat to a degree almost intolerable. Their fondness for foreign food, is generally but too visible in the swollen and distorted features of persons newly arrived.

Smyrna has on the South-east, a fine plain, in which are villages, and the houses of the principal factors, who reside in the country in summer. At the extremity of this plain, are the mountains. In these, wild animals abound, and especially jackalls, which are nightly howling on the hills, or in the plain. When one begins, the rest join, as it were, in full cry. Cameleons and lizards are commonly seen, about the rubbish of old buildings, basking in the sun; and several kinds of snakes are found, some of great length, which are frequently discovered by their musty smell.

The river Meles, was the ancient boast of the Smyrneans. This most beautiful water, as it has been stiled, flowed by the city, and had its source not remote. The stream is clear, and in summer shallow, scarce covering the rocky bed; and, winding in the deep valley behind the castle, murmuring among the ever-greens. In winter, after heavy rains on the mountains, or the melting of the snow, it swells into a torrent rapid and deep, often not fordable, or with danger.

The gulf of Smyrna, which has been computed about ten leagues long, is sheltered by hills, and affords secure anchorage. The mouth of the river Hermus, is within two leagues of the city. This river, with the Meander, was anciently famous for a fish called Glanis, and for mullet; which came up from the sea in great numbers, particularly in spring.

The fertility of the soil by the river, has occasioned the settling of numerous villages, on that side of the gulf. Menimen, which is the principal, supplies Smyrna with fruits, fish, and provisions; boats passing to and fro without intermission. The hills are enlivened by flocks of sheep and goats, and resound with the rude music of the lyre and pipe; the former, a stringed instrument, resembling a guittar, and held much in the same manner, but usually played with a bow.

The port of Smyrna, is one of the finest in the Levant, and capable of containing the largest fleet. There are seldom fewer than an hundred vessels, of nations, at anchor in it. The circumference of the present city, is about four miles; it is nearly in the form of a triangle. The houses have very little beauty in them, being built very low, and in general with clay walls. The public buildings, however, have an air of great magnificence. Though the houses are low, the streets are spacious, and look like one continued fair, where all kinds of merchandize of Europe and Asia, is exposed to view, with all sorts of provisions in great profusion. The houses of the English, Dutch, and French consuls, stand near the shore, and are very handsome buildings.

A castle stands at the entrance of the port, which commands all shipping going in, and coming out. There is also a ruinous castle in the upper part of the city, near a mile in circumference, built, according to tradition, by the Empress Helen; and near it, the remains of a palace, in which the Greek council was held; when Smyrna was the metropolis of Lower Asia.

The walks about the town are exceedingly pleasant, especially on the West side of the Frank-street, where are several little groves of lemon and orange-trees; which, being at all times clothed with blossoms and fruits, have a most beautiful appearance. Through these gardens runs the river Melos, on whose banks the Smyrneans have a tradition that Homer was born; though this honour is contended by Rhodes, Scio, Athens, and other places.

The vines, which cover the little hills round Smyrna, afford a delightful prospect, and a great quantity of grapes; of which some excellent wine is made.

Hunting and fishing, are two diversions which are very much followed by the inhabitants. It is very frequent for them to go out to fish in large parties; and after having caught a sufficient quantity, and amused themselves as long as they think proper, to land near some wood, into which they enter; and, after spreading a cloth, make their dinner of the fish they have caught, and whatever collation they have brought with them. In these parties, are sometimes from twenty to thirty people. While they are at dinner, trumpets, French-horns, and other instruments of music, are continually playing; after which, is generally some sea-dance, or other diversion performed by the mariners.

The merchants continually form such parties as these, either on the water, or to go a few miles in the country, which, the cheapness of provisions, makes it very reasonable. In short, at Smyrna, there may be said to be every thing that can gratify the senses, and make life pleasant.

The trade of this city is very considerable. It is chiefly carried on by the English and Dutch. The chief articles, which the inhabitants wear, are cotton, camels' skins, and stuffs made of the same, such as water-camlets, of a very glossy shining colour. These are sold for sixty crowns a piece, and sometimes more.

There is also a commerce carried on with Persia, by the caravans, which arrive in February, July, and October. The journey from Persia to Smyrna, says Le Brun, takes up about seven months.

The reports of the population of this city vary very much. Some writers make it to consist of eighty thousand inhabitants, others not so much.

Forty miles South of Smyrna, stands the remains of the ancient and celebrated city of Ephesus. These two cities have been termed the eyes of Asia-Minor. It is very pleasantly situated upon a fine haven, near the mouth of the river Cayster. Under the Romans, it was the metropolis of Asia. Here stood the celebrated temple of Diana, esteemed one of the wonders of the world, and which Erostratus burnt to perpetuate his memory, the night that Alexander was born. Many grand ruins still remain; some of which, are merely conjectured, by writers, to be the remains of the second temple of Diana, there having been a second temple erected to the honour of that goddess, and built in a stile of magnificence more glorious than that of the former.

Near the aqueduct, says Chandler, we met with a curious memorial of the great respect paid to the goddess of the Ephesians. It was one of their decrees inscribed on a slab of white marble, purporting, that an entire month should be held sacred, and set apart to the goddess; and that, during this whole month, nothing should be attended to by the Ephesians, but festivals and public games.

There are also very visible remains of an aqueduct, a circus, and a theatre; that theatre, in which the preaching of St. Paul produced such a tumult, that the people rushed in and shouted, 'Great is Diana of the Ephesians.'

The curious reader, says Chandler, will ask what is become of the renowned temple of Diana? Can a wonder of the world be vanished like a phantom, without leaving a trace behind? We would give a satisfactory answer to such queries; but, to our great regret, we searched for the site of this fabric, to as little purpose as the travellers who have preceded us.

The destruction of so illustrious an edifice, deserved to have been carefully recorded by cotemporary historians. We may conjecture, it followed the triumph of christianity. The Ephesian reformers, when authorised by the Imperial edicts, rejoiced in the opportunity of insulting Diana, and deemed it piety to demolish the very ruin of her habitation. Hence, perhaps, while the columns of a Corinthian temple have owed their preservation to their bulk, those of this fabric, with the vast architraves, and all the massive materials have perished, and are consumed. Though its stones were far more ponderous, and the heap larger beyond comparison, the whole is gone, we know not how, or whither. An ancient author has described it, as standing at the head of the port, and shining as a meteor. We may add, that as such too it has since disappeared.

This temple, was reckoned the first in Ionia, for magnitude and riches. The architect employed, was the famous projector, who proposed the forming of Mount Athos, when he had finished, into a statue of Alexander the Great. It was 420 feet long, and 220 broad. Of the columns, which were sixty feet high, 127 were donations from kings. The order was Ionic, and it had eight columns in front. The folding doors, or gates, had been continued four years in glue, and were made of cypress-wood, which had been treasured up for four generations, highly polished. The ceiling was of cedar. The whole altar was, in a manner, full of the works of Praxiteles. The offerings were inestimable, and among them was a picture by Apelles, representing Alexander armed with thunder, for which he was paid twenty talents of gold, or near forty thousand pounds. The structure was so wonderfully great in its composition, and so magnificently adorned, that it appeared the work of beings more than human. The sun, it is affirmed, beheld in his course, no object of superior excellence, or worthier of admiration.

A writer, who lived toward the end of the second century, has cited a sybil, as foretelling, that the earth opening and quaking, the temple of Diana would be swallowed, like a ship in a storm, into the abyss; and Ephesus lamenting and weeping by the river-banks would enquire for it, then inhabited no more. If the authenticity of the oracle were undisputed, and the sibyl acknowledged a genuine prophetess, we might infer from the visible condition of the place, the full accomplishment of the whole prediction. We seek in vain for the temple; the city is prostrate; and the goddess gone.

The present inhabitants of this once magnificent city, are only a few Greek peasants, living in extreme wretchedness, dependance, and insensibility: the representations of an illustrious people, and inhabiting the wreck of their greatness; some, beneath the vaults of the stadium; and some by the abrupt precipice, in the sepulchres, which received the ashes of the dead.

Such are the present citizens of Ephesus, and such is the condition to which that renowned city has been gradually reduced. It was a ruinous place, when the emperor Justinian, filled Constantinople with its statues, and raised his church of St. Sophia on its columns. Since then, it has been almost quite exhausted. Its streets are obscured and overgrown. A herd of goats was driven to it for shelter, from the sun at noon; and a noisy flight of crows from the quarries, seemed to insult its silence. The glorious pomp of its heathen worship is no longer remembered; and christianity, which was there nursed by the apostles, and fostered by general councils, until it increased to fulness of stature, barely lingers on, in an existence hardly visible.

Bursa is one of the largest and finest towns of Turkey in Asia, the capital of the ancient Bithynia, and extends itself from East to West, at the foot of Mount Olympus, and on the edge of a fine extensive plain, full of mulberry and other fruit-trees. So many springs proceed from Mount Olympus, that every house has its own fountain. The mosques are very elegant and numerous, they are covered with lead, and adorned with domes; as are also the caravansara's, which are very handsome and commodious. The Begestein, is a large structure full of warehouses and shops, containing all the commodities of the East, besides their own manufactures in silk. Here are the best workmen in all Turkey; they are excellent imitators of the tapestry of Italy and France. This place is, in general, very pleasant; and the quarter of the Bazars, is well paved and neat. It contains above forty thousand Turks; four hundred families of Jews; five hundred of Armenians, and three hundred of Greeks. None but Mussulmen are permitted to dwell in the city; but the suburbs, which are much more beautiful, and better peopled, are filled with Jews, Armenians, and Greeks. The Jews came hither from Granada, and speak good Spanish to this day. The inhabitants have excellent wine, and other provisions in great plenty. It was the seat of the Turkish emperors, before they passed into Europe. The palace of the grand signior is still remaining, though in a ruinous state, and stands on a high road encircled by a double wall. The sepulchres of the first Turkish emperors, and their sultanas, are also still to be seen in small chapels covered with domes.

The celebrated baths of Calipso, are little more than a mile from the city. These baths are in such fame, for the cures they have effected, that many people resort to them from very remote provinces. The water in some of them is so hot, that it must be mixed with a considerable quantity of cold to be supportable. The construction of these baths, is nearly similar to those we have already described, and the manner of bathing in them the same.

In this province are several other towns, now reduced to villages, which were formerly flourishing and important cities. Among others, Chalcedon, near Scutari, is now a miserable village; though, in former times, it was a great city, and the residence of the fourth general council.

Nicomedia, a little to the South of Chalcedon, was once the capital of Bithynia, and is still a town of some commerce, delightfully situated in a fertile country. Most of the Turkish navy are built here. It received its name from Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, who added considerably to its improvement. The ruins of this city, says Motraye, shew, that it once covered more ground, than either Constantinople, or even London.

Nice, to the South-east of the above city, is also very large and populous, and carrying the remains of still greater extent. Here Constantine assembled the first general council; and, in this city the Greek Emperors resided, after Constantinople was taken from them by the Latins.

Lybussa is memorable for the death of Hannibal, who chose to put a period to his existence, rather than deliver himself up to his mortal enemy, the king of Nicomedia. It lies between this latter city and Chalcedon.

The province of Phrygia-Minor, adjoining to Bithynia, contains the ruins of several once celebrated cities; particularly Lampsacus, Troy, Troas, Alexandria, and Pergamos.

Of Lampsacus, now a small town at the entrance of the Dardanells, it is related, that Alexander having devoted it to destruction, and being informed, the inhabitants were coming to implore his mercy, that he would spare their city, swore, that he would reject their petition, with which the inhabitants being made acquainted, addressed him to destroy their city; and it was saved by this stratagem; this great hero, thinking that his oath ought not to be dispensed with.

Of Troy, rendered memorable by Homer, Virgil, and other poets, for the ten years siege it sustained, against the united power of the Greeks, according to several writers, some magnificent ruins remain; but, we suspect, that these ruins are those of Troas Alexandria, one of the eighteen cities erected by Alexander the Great. Chandler observes, that several travellers have imagined this was the site of Ilium, or Troy. The siege of Troy, is supposed to have happened about the year of the world 2816; before Christ 1184 years. At Sigaeum, built on its ruins, are two barrows standing, each in a vineyard. One, says Chandler, was that of Achilles and Patroclus; the other was that of Antilochus, son of Nestor. We had likewise in view, the barrow of Ajax Telamon; and at a distance from it, that of Aesytes, mentioned in Homer; but of the ruins of Troy he makes no mention.

Alexandria Troas, (we take our description from Chandler) was begun by Antigonus, and from him first called Antigonia; but Lysimachus, to whom, as a successor of Alexander, it devolved, changed its name in honour of the deceased king.

Alexander the Great, instead of making his progress by devastations, wisely provided more lasting and honourable monuments of his passage through the countries which he subdued; causing cities and temples to be erected, and forming plans for their future prosperity. As his stay was commonly short, the execution of his noble designs was committed to the governors, whom he appointed; men of grand ideas, fitted to serve so magnificent a master.

In the war with Antiochus, Alexandria Troas was eminent for its fidelity to the Romans. Under Augustus, it received a Roman colony, and increased. It was then the only considerable place between Sigaeum, and Lectos, and was inferior to no city of its name, but Alexandria in Egypt.

The christian religion was planted early at Troas. In the beginning of the fifth century, the bishop Silvanus, was required to deliver a vessel from a demon, which was believed to detain it, as it could not be launched. It was intended for transporting some large columns, and was of great size. Going down to the beach, the bishop prayed; and taking hold of a rope, called to the multitude to assist him, when the ship readily obeyed him, and hurried into the sea. Of the ruins of this city, there are some very considerable remains.

Pergamos, situated in the same province, between Troas and Smyrna, was once the capital of a large kingdom, of which Attalus was the last king; who, by his will, transferred his kingdom to the Romans, which gave that people an opportunity of interesting themselves in the affairs of the Asiatic princes. Here Galen, the celebrated physician, was born. Parchment and tapestry, it is said, were first made here; but it is more famous for a library collected by its kings, containing 20,000 volumes, written on parchment. It was one of the seven churches threatened by St. John.

In the province of Galatia, is Ancyra, situated on the river Melus; near this city, which is at present one of the most considerable in Natolia, Pompey obtained a great victory over Mithridates; and, nearly on the same spot, Bajazet was afterwards defeated by Tamerlane. The streets are full of old marble pillars, some of which are of red porphyry, grained with white, and others of red and white jasper. The houses are, for the most part, built of clay; yet noble pieces of marble are frequently found to have been employed in these buildings, as also in the walls and towers of the city. The castle has a triple wall, composed of large pieces of white marble and stone, much resembling porphyry. There are a great number of inscriptions in different parts of the town.

It is computed there are in Ancyra, 40,000 Turks, besides a great number of Greeks and Armenians. This city lies about five days journey South of the Black Sea.

In the country about Ancyra, there is said to be the finest breed of goats in the known world. They are milk-white, and their hair, which is as fine as silk, is curled, and eight or nine inches long. The fine stuffs and camblots, made from their hair, is the principal manufacture of the country. But these goats are not to be met with above four or five days journey from this city; if they are carried further, they degenerate.

The two cities of Gordium and Coloss, in Phrygia-Major, are reputed, the first to have been the seat of Gordius, king of Phrygia, who tied the famous knot in the temple of Apollo; which he predicted, that whoever could unloosen, would be sovereign of the whole world; and which Alexander, in vain attempting, cut with his sword. Coloss, situated on the South side of the Maeander, is the city to which S. Paul addressed one of his epistles.

Lydia is the province of which that rich and powerful monarch Croesus, was king. The capital city is Sardes, situated on the river Pactolus, seventy miles East of Smyrna: it hath now little remarkable, but very extensive ruins, though it was once the finest city in Lesser Asia, and one of the seven churches mentioned in scripture.

Lydia, says Chandler, was celebrated for its city Sardes, which was of great antiquity, though posterior to the war of Troy. It was enriched by the fertility of the soil, and the Acropolis was remarkable for its strength. This was on a lofty hill; the back part, or that towards Tmolus, a perpendicular precipice. One of the kings, an ancestor of Croesus, it is related, believed that, by leading a lion about the wall, he should render the fortress impregnable, and neglected that portion of it as totally inaccessible.

Croesus, who was a tyrant, or king of all nations, within the river Halys, engaging Cyrus, who had followed him into Lydia, was defeated in the plain before the city; the Lydian horses not enduring the smell of the camels. Cyrus then besieged him, and offered a reward for the person who should first mount the wall. One of his soldiers had seen a Lydian descend for his helmet, which had rolled down the back of the Acropolis. He tried to ascend there, where not even a centinel was placed, and succeeded. Afterwards the Persian Satrapas, or commandant, resided at Sardas, as the emperor did at Susa.

The city and acropolis, surrendered on the approach of Alexander, after the battle of the Granicus. Under the Romans, Sardes was a large city, and not inferior to any of its neighbours, until the terrible earthquake, which happened in the time of Tiberius Coesar. Magnesia, Philadelphia, Laodicea, Ephesus, and several more cities partook largely in that calamity; but this place suffered prodigiously, and was much pitied.

The principal towns that we see any account of, in the province of Caria, are Miletus, and Halicarnassus.

Miletus, situated near the sea, on the North side of the Maeander, was once a town of great fame, but at present is only a village.

Miletus, says Chandler, is now a very mean place, but still called Palat, or Palatia, the palaces. The principal relic, of its former magnificence, is a ruined theatre, which is visible afar off, and was a most capacious edifice, measuring 457 feet long. The external face of this vast fabric is marble. On the side of the theatre next to the river, is an inscription in mean characters, rudely cut, in which, "The city Miletus" is mentioned seven times. This is a monument of heretical Christianity. One Basilides, who lived in the second century, was the founder of an absurd sect, called Basilidians and Gnostics, the original proprietors of the many gems, with strange devices and inscriptions, intended to be worn as amulets, or charms; with which the cabinets of the curious now abound. One of their idle tenets was, that the appellative "Jehovah," possessed singular virtue and efficacy. They expressed it by the seven Greek vowels, which they transported into a variety of combinations. The superstition appears to have prevailed, in no small degree, at Miletus. In this remain the mysterious name is frequently repeated, and the deity six times invoked, "Holy Jehovah, preserve the town of the Milesians, and all the inhabitants." The archangels also are summoned to be their guardians, and the whole city is made the author of these supplications; from which, thus engraved, it was expected, as may be presumed, to derive lasting prosperity, and a kind of talismanical protection.

The whole site of the town, to a great extent, is spread with rubbish, and over-run with thickets. The vestiges of the heathen city, are pieces of wall, broken arches, and a few scattered pedestals and inscriptions; a square marble urn, and many wells. One of the pedestals has belonged to a statue of the emperor Hadrian, who was a friend to the Milesians; as appears from the title of saviour and benefactor bestowed on him. Another has supported the emperor Severus, and has a long inscription, with this curious preamble. "The senate and people of the city of the Milesians, the first settled in Ionia, and the mother of many and great cities, both in Pontus and Egypt, and in various other parts of the world." Some fragments of ordinary churches are interspersed among the ruins; and traces remain of an old fortress erected upon the theatre; beneath which, is a square inclosure, designed, it seems, as a station for an armed party to dispute, or defend the passage of the river.

From the number of forsaken mosques, it is evident, that Mahometanism had flourished in its turn, at Miletus. All these have been mean buildings, and mere patch work; but one, a noble and beautiful structure of marble, is in use; and the dome, with a tall palmtree or two, towers amid the ruins of some low flatroofed cottages, inhabited by a very few Turkish families, the present citizens of Miletus.

The history of this place, after the declension of the Greek empire, is very imperfect. The whole region has undergone frequent ravages from the Turks. One sultan, in 1175, sent 20,000 men, with orders to lay waste the Roman provinces, and bring him seawater, sand, and an oar. All the cities on the Maeander, and on the coast, were then ruined. Miletus was again destroyed towards the end of the thirteenth century, by the conquering Othman.

This city was once exceedingly powerful and illustrious. Its early investigators extended its commerce to remote regions. The whole Euxine sea, the Propontis, Egypt, and other countries, were frequented by its ships, and settled by its colonies. It boasted a venerable band of memorable men; among the rest, Hecatoeus, an early historian; and Thales, the father of philosophy. It withstood Darius, and refused to admit Alexander. It has been stiled the metropolis, and head of Ionia; the bulwark of Asia; chief in war and peace; mighty by sea; the fertile mother, which had poured forth her sons to every quarter, counting not fewer than seventy-five cities descended from her. It afterwards fell so low, as to furnish a proverbial saying, "The Milesians were once great;" but, if we compare its ancient glory, and its subsequent humiliation with its present state, we may justly exclaim, "Miletus, how much lower art thou now fallen!"

At Ura, twenty-two miles from Miletus, and about two miles and a half from the shore, are the ruins of a famous temple, dedicated to Apollo Didymeus. It is approached by a gentle ascent, and seen afar off; the land towards the sea lying flat and level. The memory of the pleasure which this spot afforded me, says Chandler, will not be soon, or easily, erased. The columns, yet entire, are so exquisitely fine; the marble mass so vast and noble, that it is impossible, perhaps, to conceive greater beauty and majesty of ruin.

Of Halicarnassus nothing is extant but the ruins. No part of the tomb, erected by queen Artimesia, for her husband Mausolus, is now remaining; though formerly esteemed one of the finest structures in the world. In this city Herodotus and Dionysius were born.

Amasia, another district in Asia-Minor, containing several provinces, and bounded by the Euxine sea on the North, and by Armenia and Georgia on the East, has few places of any celebrity.

Amasia, a town of the same name, situated near the banks of the river Iris, is the residence of the Turkish viceroy; and was anciently that of the kings of Cappadocia. It is pleasantly situated on an eminence, from whence there is a prospect over an extensive plain. The buildings are mean, nor is it a place of much commerce; but there are some magnificent ruins, where the palaces of the ancient princes stood. The Greeks have an archbishop. The best wines, and best fruits in Natolia, are to be met with here. It is also celebrated in having been the birth-place of Strabo.

Tocat, a very populous city, is situated about a hundred miles South of the Black Sea. There is a considerable manufacture carried on here, of yellow Turkey leather. The Armenians, who inhabit this city, are mostly mechanics, being employed in copper, and other hardware. The Christians make excellent wine here, and the adjacent country abounds in different kinds of fruits. Saffron is produced here in considerable quantity. It is also the grand thoroughfare for the caravans, which come from Turkey, and are bound for Persia, Arabia, and India. The Amazons, if ever there were such a people, is supposed to have resided in this part of Asia.

According to other writers, who give a more particular description of this city; it contains near 30,000 inhabitants. The houses are well built, and two stories in height. The city is in the form of an amphitheatre, which gives it a singular appearance. The streets are well paved, a circumstance very unusual in Asiatic cities. The streams are so abundant, that each house here, has also its fountain. Besides the silk of this country, they manufacture eight or ten loads of that of Persia, and make it into sewing silk. Their chief trade is in copper vessels, such as kettles, drinking cups, lanthorns and candlesticks. This city may be looked upon as the center of trade in Natolia.

Trebisond is a large, populous, and strong town, situated on the shore of the Euxine sea. Within the walls are groves and gardens, intermixed with houses. It is seated at the foot of a very steep hill, and the walls are square and high with battlements. They are built with the ruins of ancient structures, on which there are inscriptions, but not legible. It had a strong castle built on a rock for its defence, but now much decayed; the harbour, which lies at the East end of the city, was formerly esteemed a very good one; but is, at present, so blocked up, that ships cannot enter it.

The suburbs, which are larger than the city, are inhabited by Greeks and Armenians. The country is not fruitful, and the trade is much on the decline. It was subject to the Roman and Greek emperors; but in 1209, the sovereignty of it was usurped by David Commenus, a Frenchman, who took upon himself the title of Duke. His successor, John Commenus, assumed that of emperor; and his descendants remained sovereigns of the city, and the adjacent country, till the year 1460, when Mahomet II. took it, and put to death David Commenus, the last emperor; and the Turks still continue in possession of it.

Of the provinces, in the two other districts of Asia-Minor, Aladulia, and Caramania, we can collect nothing worthy of notice.

CHAP. III. Turcomania, Curdistan, and Diarbeck.

THE province of Turcomania, the ancient Armenia, is situated North of Diarbeck and Curdistan; having Media on the East, and Natolia on the West. The chief cities arc Erzerom and Cars.

The city of Erzerom, the capital, is situated at the foot of a mountain, in forty-one degrees of longitude, and forty of latitude. It is about two miles in circumference, and surrounded by a double wall. The inhabitants consist of twenty thousand Turks, and six thousand Armenians. Most of the Turks, though ordinary tradesmen, are called Janissaries, from having given a sum of money to the Aga, to be enrolled as such.

The Greeks and Armenians have each their bishop. They are, for the most part, artificers, and employed in the leather and copper manufactures; the mountains near the city, being rich in copper, together with some silver ore. These mountains, are generally covered with snow till midsummer; the air in winter is exceedingly cold; and the vallies in summer are as much too hot; the weather, hereabouts, frequently changing from violent heat to the opposite extreme, which is the more insupportable, as there is scarco any fewel in the country; there is neither tree nor bush to be seen for many miles; their firing, therefore, is cow-dung, and other stinking materials which taint the air, and spoil the food dressed with it. Their commerce is chiefly in furs, and they have a brisk foreign trade; the caravans passing through this city, in their way to Constantinople, in order to avoid the Arabs, whom they are in danger of encountering, when they proceed in a direct line to Aleppo. In this city is collected the custom-house dues, on all merchandize that passes through the country. They seldom enter into particulars, but charge them by the lump, according to their weight. For instance, twenty pounds are demanded for every camel-load, which is generally about eight hundred weight. Sometimes five per cent. is demanded for all merchandize exported; and five crowns for each traveller.

Kars, or Cars, lies on a river of the same name, about one hundred miles East of Trebisond. It is two miles in circumference, and but thinly inhabited. The town is defended by a castle, situated on an inaccessible rock; and, as it is a frontier town adjoining to Persia, it has a numerous garrison, commanded by a bashaw. The merchants complain much of the extortions practised on them, when they pass through this city. The houses are very mean in their appearance, and look more like dens than the habitations of human beings.

The province of Curdistan, or Assyria Proper, is divided between the Persians and the Turks. The Western part belonging to Turkey, is the least, and lies between Persia on the East, and Diarbeck, or Mesopotamia, on the West. This is a very mountainous country; but the hills are covered with good timber and herbage to their very summit, and the soil in the vallies is well watered and fertile; but being a frontier province, it is not so well cultivated as it might be. The people are chiefly shepherds, who live in tents, and ramble from place to place, covering the country with their flocks and herds. They are a sort of christians, but are said to be very brutish, and much given to pilsering those who pass through their country, like the Arabs. But this is not to be wondered at, on the frontiers of two powerful kingdoms at enmity with each other; and where people will take greater liberties than in other places.

There are scarce any towns or villages in Curdistan. The houses lie dispersed at the distance of a musketshot from each other; and, though they make no wine, there is scarce a house without its vineyard.

In this country stood the ancient city of Nineveh, on the eastern bank of the river Tigris. This city, according to Jonas, was sixty miles in circumference. The walls of it are said to have been one hundred feet high, and the towers two hundred feet; of these it is recorded, there were eleven hundred and fifty. The houses did not stand contiguous, but were surrounded with large gardens and court-yards. It is said to have been built by Nimrod; but, according to some writers, by Ninus; from whom it is conjectured to have received its name. It held out a siege of three years, against Arbaces, when the river overflowed twenty furlongs of the wall; on which Sardanapalus the king, retired into his palace, and having collected all his wealth, amounting to twenty thousand millions of pounds, he set fire to the whole, and threw himself into the flames. This city was afterwards entirely destroyed by Astyages, and nothing is now to be seen, but heaps of rubbish along the river Tigris, where it formerly stood, and which is imagined to be the remains of this great city.

About two miles from the Tigris, on a small eminence, stands a mosque; on the spot, where, according to tradition, Jonas was buried. The Turks have such a veneration for this mosque, that they will scarce permit any Christian to enter it.

The principal city in Curdistan, is Sherasoul, which lies to the East of Nineveh, in the 36th degree of Latitude. It is the seat of the viceroy. The town is not large, but built in a singular manner; the houses being hewn out of a rock, or the side of a hill.

Arbela, to the East of Sherasoul, lies adjoining to a plain of fifteen leagues in extent. It was on this plain that Alexander defeated Darius. In the middle of the plain is a considerable eminence, covered with fine oaks; and on the summit a castle, into which it is said, Darius went to view the engagement.

Betlis, in the northern part of this province, is a city whose prince is independent, both of the Porte, and of Persia; the country here being very mountainous, and almost inaccessible. The road up to the city is cut through a rock, being not more than just wide enough to admit a camel to pass. It is built round the hill in shape of a cone, and stands at an equal distance from two other mountains. On the top is a plain where the Castle stands; and here the bey, or prince, has his palace. It is said he can raise five and twenty thousand horse, and a large body of foot, from among the shepherds in this province.

The province of Diarbeck, or Mesopotamia, lies between the Tigris and Euphrates; from which situation it is said to have obtained its name. It is bounded by Turcomania on the North, and Chaldaea on the South.

This province is, for the most part, as fertile as any in the Turkish empire. It abounds, particularly in the North part, with corn, wine, cattle, wild fowl, and every kind of provisions. There is a pleasing variety of hills and vales, throughout the province; and it is almost entirely encircled by the Tigris and Euphrates, besides being watered by several lesser streams.

The two principal cities in this province, are Orfa and Diarbeck. Orfa is said to be the capital. This city is supposed to be the ancient Edissa; it lies in 36 degrees of North latitude. It is also said to have been the place where Abraham dwelt. The first thing shewn to strangers, is a large fountain, whose springs rise under the principal mosque. The Christians have a tradition, that it was on this spot that Abraham prayed, before he went to offer up his son Isaac, and that two springs of water arose from the place where he knelt.

The walls of this city are built of free-stone, with towers at different distances; but the town is meanly built, and many parts of it unoccupied. There are some pleasant gardens in the suburbs, watered by artificial canals, and the soil produces good corn and wine; but what Orfa is most remarkable for, is the manufacture of yellow Turkey leather, as it is called; the red being made at Diarbeck, and the blue at Tocat.

Diarbeck is situated in 42 degrees of East longitude, and 47 of North latitude, on the river Tigris, and not far from its source. It is built on an eminence, and the descent to the river is very steep. The town is surrounded by a double wall; on the outward wall, are sixty ancient towers, and three gates; on every one of which is an inscription in Greek, not intelligible at present, but repeating the name of Constantine several times. In this city is a magnificent mosque, and several handsome squares. It contains 20,000 Christian inhabitants, two thirds of which are Armenians▪ besides a great number of Mahometans. About a league from the city, is a canal cut from the Tygris, which supplies the town with water▪ and it is in this water that all the red Turkey leather, made at Diarbeck, is washed, and which so much excels all others in colour. This manufacture employs, at least, one-fourth of the inhabitants. The soil in the environs of this city, is very good, and abounds in corn and wine. This city stands so near the source of the Tigris, that it is fordable here.

CHAP. IV. Irac-Arabi, and Georgia.

THE province of Irac-Arabi, anciently called Chaldaea, lies on both sides the river Euphrates and Tigris; having Persia on the East, and Arabia Deserta on the West. In this province, according to some writers, was the seat of Paradise; and here stood the tower of Babel, where language was first confounded.

The principal towns in this province are, Bagdad, Bassora, and the ruins of Babylon and Selqucia.

Bagdat, the capital, is situated in 43 degrees of East longitude, and 33 of North latitude, on the river Tygris. It was built by Mahomet II. caliph of the Saracens, on the Western side of the river; and about the year 1100, another town was built on the East side, and both united by a bridge of boats; according to Hanway, the only communication the river will admit of, as it is broad and deep, and in its ordinary course very rapid. At certain seasons, it swells to a prodigious height; and, overflowing the country, occasions many morasses on the side opposite to the city.

The fortifications of this city are composed of lofty thick walls, of brick, covered with earth; strengthened by great towers in form of bastions, placed at certain distances, and protected by a deep ditch, which can be filled at any time by the waters of the Tigris. The citadel is on the North side, and commands the river. The whole fortification is furnished with near two hundred pieces of cannon. The garrison generally consists of a body of two thousand men; and in time of war, more than twice that number; besides the ordinary militia, which is twelve thousand men. The principal buildings are the palace of the viceroy, the mosques of which are five; and the cloysters which surround the bazars, or market-places; and their bagnios, all built by the Persians, when in possession of Bagdat. The cadi, who is principal ecclesiastic, and consequently the chief judge, has great authority in this province. The Tefterdar, or treasurer, who collects the public revenue, has also considerable influence in the council; and the Reis Effendi, or secretary, who is sometimes stiled chancellor, is likewise an officer of great consequence, and they are all of the viceroy's council; and a check on his administration, over whom he has no authority; they being only accountable to the Divan at Constantinople.

Bossora, or Bassora, is situated in 47 degrees of East longitude, and 30 of North latitude, about three miles from the united stream of the Euphrates, and the Tigris, with which it has a communication by a deep canal, the tide flowing between forty and fifty miles higher than the town, which is a great advantage to their navigation and foreign traffic. The walls of this town are twelve miles in circumference; within which, are many void spaces, fields and gardens. The situation of Bassora, is not only extremely pleasant, being surrounded with fruitful fields and gardens; but it is, or at least was, the best situated for trade of any city in the world; and is the most ancient port-town, that history takes notice of, in that part of the world. The merchants of Bassora, and those of Tyre, were probably cotemporaries; or rather the cities of Tyre and Sidon, the chief Phenician ports, received the spices, and other merchandize of the East, from Bassora, to which port they were first brought by land, on the backs of camels; and afterwards by sea up the gulf of Persia; and from that gulf, up the river Euphrates, to the end of the canal, which preserves the communication between that river and the town. Four months in the year, the Indian merchants resort hither, viz. between the first of July, and the end of October, when the Monsoon sets fair to bring them up the gulf; and, at this time, arrive the merchants from the West. In this season of the year, the town is crowded with traders from almost every part of the world.

It is not only the foreign trade that renders this town so considerable, but its lying in the road from Persia to Mecca; through which, numerous caravans of pilgrims annually pass; who not only lay out considerable sums for provisions, before they enter the desart, but make a sort of trading voyage, bartering the produce of their own country, for that of the countries they pass through; and their nobles, who are above this kind of traffic, by carrying a great train of officers and servants with them, spend a great deal of money, which the Arabs find so beneficial, that when the Persians began to take another route to Mecca, on account of some fresh duties extorted be the Arabs, they invited them to proceed in their ancient tract, and agreed to remit even most of those they used formerly to demand.

The greatest prejudice to Bassora, is the Samiel, or hot wind, that blows over this country annually, about Midsummer; at which time, many of the inhabitants, as well as foreigners, lose their lives. Thevenot, a traveller of credit, relates, that he knew four thousand people destroyed by it in one season; but, as this is the time of their fair, when multitudes of foreigners flock here, possibly many of them might die of other diseases. There is another distemper which reigns here, about this time, occasioning swellings in the groin, neck, and other parts of the body. This is not so dangerous as the other; but were it much more so, it is observable, that where merchants have a prospect of great gain, nothing will deter them from visiting such places; as for example, their trading to Bencoolen, in the East-Indies; and Porto-Bello, in the West-Indies.

This hot wind reigns from India, as far as the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates; and seems to be more fatal here than either in India or Persia; those who breathe this air, frequently dying in an instant, as if struck with lightning. Thevenot is of opinion, this is the wind mentioned by Job, it blowing always from the East; it seems very evident, this hot wind is occasioned from its blowing over a tract of burning sand; as it is never felt upon the sea, contiguous to those countries, where it is so fatal on the land.

The environs of this city are beautiful. There are no finer pasture grounds to be met with in all Asia; but the country, since it has been under the dominion of the Turks, is not so well cultivated as it was in former times.

Georgia, of which we have said something before, is divided between the Persians and the Turks. Much the greater part is under the dominion of Persia. This is a very mountainous country, especially the North part; the mountains, however, in general, are covered with forest-trees, fruit-trees, and herbage; and the soil produces good corn, where it is cultivated; but the inhabitants are for the most part shepherds, living in tents, and ploughing no more than is sufficient for their subsistence.

There are some of these mountains, however, very high, and covered with snow great part of the year, which makes the air of this province very cold in winter; except in the vallies, and those are, for the most part, warm enough, and in summer excessive hot.

In Turkish Georgia may be comprehended Mongrelia, Imeretta, and the South part of Circassia; which countries are situated between 41 and 46 degrees of Eastern longitude, and between 40 and 45 degrees of North latitude; lying in the form of a crescent, about the East end of the Euxine sea. The chief towns are, Amarchia and Gonie. Of these towns we find nothing worthy of notice. The Georgians appear to lead a particular life, being dispersed about the mountains, or in the vallies, and on the banks of rivers, in scattered habitations.

The country is reputed to be very healthy, and the natives are of a good stature, and their features and complexion, as well as their parts and genius, more admired than any people in the East. From hence, as we have before observed, in our account of Constantinople, are transmitted most of the beautiful women, which adorn the seraglios of the Grand Signior.

It has not only been the custom of late years, for the Turks and Persians to furnish themselves with slaves from this province; but, during the reign of their caliphs, the Egyptians formed their guards from the natives of this country; who, in time, became so numerous, that they at last deposed the caliphs, usurping the dominion of Egypt themselves, under the name of Mamalukes, and even maintained themselves on that throne, for several generations, not by hereditary succession; but, when a sultan or caliph died, another popular slave was elected sovereign from among them. It has been suggested, that the Egyptians also purchased female slaves, as well as males, from the Georgians. The Egyptian women have been so celebrated for their beauty and wit, that we have many remarkable instances in history, particularly in Solomon, who adored his Egyptian wife, as well as her gods. Cleopatra made a conquest, both of Coesar and Anthony; and Mahomet was fonder of his Egyptian mistress, than of any of his wives or concubines. The reason generally assigned, that the Turks are such comely and personable men, and their daughters so fair, is their cohabiting with Georgian and Circassian beauties; and the like may be conjectured of the Egyptians.

All that we can learn of the present government of Georgia is, that the Southern provinces are subject either to the Persians or the Turks; but, as to the Northern provinces, they are, in some measure, independent of either of these powers. They will, to serve their turn, acknowledge themselves subject, sometimes to Turkey, and at others to Russia; but no dependance is to be placed upon them. By retiring to their mountains, they are, in a manner, out of their reach; and as it would be impracticable entirely to subdue them, so it would be impolitic to attempt it; because, if they found themselves oppressed by one of these powers, they would infallibly join the other. With respect to their internal government, the country seems divided into but two ranks, or orders, that of lords and slaves. The common people have no property in the lands, or goods they possess; and even their wives and children are the property of their respective lords, and may be sold by them at pleasure. The lords themselves, in their several subdivisions, have a chief, whom they acknowledge to be their sovereign, and possibly may be a check upon his administration, if he attempts to tyrannize, or oppress them.

With regard to the religion of the inhabitants of Georgia, there are a number of Mahometans; but much the greater part are Christians, of the Greek and Armenian persuasion; and it is these who are made slaves; the Turks giving free liberty to all those who subscribe to their religious tenets.

CHAP. V. Syria, Country, Climate, Winds, Rivers, Mountains, Productions.

SYRIA lies to the Westward of Diarbeck, or Mesopotamia, from which it is separated from the Euphrates; having Natolia and Turcomania on the North, Arabia on the South, and the Mediterranean towards the West, in which limits are included, Phoenicia and Palestine.

This name of Syria, is an abridgment of Assyria, first adopted by the Ionians, who frequented those coasts, after the Assyrians of Nineveh had reduced that country to be a province of their empire; that is, about 750 years before Christ. The name of Syria, then comprehended neither Phoenicia, nor Palestine. The present inhabitants, who, according to the constant practise of the Arabs, have not adopted the Greek names, call it Barrel-Sham, or country to the left. This country is, in some measure, only a chain of mountains, distributing themselves in various directions
MAP of JUDEA, SYRIA &c.

from one leading branch. These mountains, as they vary their levels and situations, are also greatly changed in their form and appearance.

It is an opinion generally received, that Syria is a very hot country; but it will be necessary to make several distinctions: first, on account of the difference of latitude, which, from one extremity to the the other, is not less than six degrees: secondly, from the natural division of the country, into low and flat, and high and mountainous, which division occasions a still more sensible difference; for, while Reaumeur's thermometer stands at 25 and 26 degrees upon the coast, it hardly rises to 20 or 21 among the mountains. In winter, therefore, the whole chain of mountains is covered with snow; while the lower country is always free from it, or at least, it lies only for an instant. We must, therefore, establish two general climates, the one very hot, which is that of the coast, and the interior plains, such as those of Balbech, Antioch, Tripoli, Acre, Gaza, &c. the other temperate, and almost like our own, which is the climate of the mountains, at least at a certain height.

In the mountains, the order of seasons is nearly the same as in the middle provinces of France; the winter, which lasts from November to March, is sharp and vigorous. Not a year passes without snow, and the earth is frequently covered several feet deep with it for months together; the spring and autumn are mild, but the summer heat is absolutely insupportable. In the plains, on the contrary; as soon as the sun returns to the equator, the transition is rapid to oppressive heats, which continue to the end of October. But then the winter is so moderate, that the orange, date, banana, and other delicate trees, flourish in the open air; and it appears equally extraordinary and picturesque, to an European at Tripoli, to behold under his windows in the month of January, orange-trees loaded with flowers and fruit, while the lofty head of Lebanon is covered with ice and snow.

Syria, therefore, unites different climates under the same sky; and collects within a narrow compass, pleasures and productions, which nature has elsewhere dispersed at greater distances from time and place. In Europe, seasons are separated by months; here they are only separated by hours. If in Saide, or Tripoli, the inhabitants are incommoded by the heats of July, in six hours they are in the neighbouring mountains, and in the temperature of March; or, on the other hand, if chilled by the frosts of December, in the mountains, a days journey brings them to the coast amid the flowers of May. The Arabian poets have therefore said, that the Sannen, (or peak of Lebanon) bears winter on his head, spring upon his shoulders, and autumn in his bosom, while summer lies sleeping at his feet.

The winds in Syria, as in Egypt, are, in some degree, periodical, and governed by the seasons. About the autumnal equinox, the North-west wind begins to flow more frequently and stronger. It renders the air dry, clear, and sharp; and it is remarkable, that on the sea-coast it causes the head-ach; but never in the mountains. This wind continues to prevail about fifty days, and is followed by the North-west, West, and South-west, which prevail from November to February. The two latter winds are, to use the expression of the Arabs, the fathers of the rains. In March arise the pernicious winds from the Southern quarter, with the same circumstances as in Egypt. Their duration, at each return, is usually three days. The easterly winds which follow, continue till June, when a North wind succeeds. At the season, the wind varies through all the points every day, passing with the sun from the East to the South; and from the South to the West, to return by the North, and re-commence the circuit. At this time also, a local wind called the land-breeze, prevails along the coast during the night; it springs up after sun-set, lasts till sun-rising, and reaches only two or three leagues out at sea.

The causes of all these phaenomena, are problems well deserving the attention of natural philosophers. No country is better adapted to observations of this kind, than Syria. It seems as if nature had there prepared whatever is necessary, to the study of her operations. We, says Volney, in our foggy climates, in the depth of vast continents, are unable to pursue the great changes which happen in the atmosphere: the confined horizon, which bounds our view, circumscribes also our ideas. The field of our observation is very limited; and a thousand circumstances combine to vary the effects of natural causes. There, on the contrary, an immense scene opens before us; and the great agents of nature are collected in a space, which renders it easy to watch their various operations. To the West, is the vast liquid plain of the Mediterranean; to the East, the plain of the Desart, no less vast, but absolutely dry; in the midst of these two level surfaces, rise the mountains, whose summits are so many observatories, from whence the sight may discern full thirty leagues. Four observers might command the whole extent of Syria; and, from the tops of Casiers, Lebanon and Tabor, let nothing escape them within that boundless horizon. They might observe, how the region of the sea, at first unclouded, veils itself with vapours; in what manner these vapours form into groups, and separate; and, by a constant mechanism, ascend and rise above the mountains; while, on the other hand, the desart invariably clear, never produces clouds, and has only those it has received from the sea. They might reply to the question proposed by M. Michaelis, to the traveller for the king of Denmark, "Whether the desart produces dews?" that the desart, containing no water, except in winter, after the rains, can only furnish vapours at that period. On viewing the valley of Balbeck, burnt up with heat, whilst the head of Lebanon is hoary with ice and snow, they would be sensible of the truth of a maxim, which ought no longer to be disputed, that the heat is greater in proportion as we approach the surface of the earth; so that it seems to proceed only from the action of the rays of the sun upon the earth. In short, they might successfully attempt the solution of the greatest part of meteorological problems.

The exaggerated, or in other terms, the grand ideas which history and travellers usually give to distant objects, have accustomed us to speak of the waters of Syria, with a respect, which amuses our imagination. We are fond of saying, the river Jordan, the river Orontes, the river Adonis. If, however, we wish to preserve to words their proper signification, we shall hardly find in this country, says Volney, any other rivulets. The channels of the Orontes and the Jordan, the two most considerable, are scarcely sixty paces wide at their mouths; the others, do not merit to be mentioned. If the rains and melted snow give them some importance in the winter, their course is only to be discovered, during the remainder of the year, by the round stones, and fragments of rocks with which their beds are filled. They are nothing but torrents and cascades; and it may be conceived, that from the proximity of the mountains, to the sea, among which they rise, their waters have not time to collect in long valleys, so as to form rivers.

The Jordan, says Mariti, may, in general, be about thirty-five cubits in breadth; but when the snow is thawed, or during the rainy season, its increase overflows its banks, extends to the distance of more than four miles, and is sometimes divided into two or three channels.

It is so rapid at all times, that the strongest swimmer cannot cross it; and it would be even dangerous to cross it in a boat, unless one had the mantling Elisha mentioned in the second chapter of the second book of Kings. Its waters are always muddy; but when taken from the river, and put into any kind of vessel, they immediately clarify, leaving a black sediment mixed with bituminous particles. These waters, however are sweet, will not soon corrupt, and abound with fish. Both sides of the Jordan are bordered by a forest of tufted trees, which grow so closely in some places, that they are impenetrable to the rays of the sun. This forest is the retreat of tigers, which sometimes carry desolation to the surrounding country. It is peopled also, with, birds of every kind, and particularly nightingales.

These waters are said to purify both the soul and the body. The Greeks even imagine, that people are not properly baptized, until they have plunged three times into the river Jordan. Men, women, and children, therefore, may be seen throwing themselves into the water together, with an eagerness almost bordering on madness, without thinking that they offend both against modesty and decency.

The custom of bathing in this river, is as ancient as the age of Elisha. "Go," said that prophet to Naaman, who was afflicted with the leprosy, "wash in the Jordan seven times, and thy flesh shall come again unto thee, and thou shalt be clean." Naaman obeyed; and, as a reward for his faith, his blood was purified, and his flesh became as sound as that of an infant.

The obstacles opposed by the mountains of the above-mentioned rivers, at the issue, have formed considerable lakes, in several places; such as those of Antioch, Aleppo, Damascus, Houla, Tabaria, and that which is honoured with the name of the Dead Sea, or Lake Asphaltites. All these lakes, except the last, are of fresh water, and contain several species of fish, different from those we are acquainted with.

Lake Asphaltites alone, contains neither animal nor vegetable life. We see no verdure on its banks, nor are fish to be found within its waters; but it is not true, that its exhalations are pestiferous, so as to destroy birds flying over it. It is very common to see swallows skimming its surface, and dipping for the water necessary to build their nests. The real cause which deprives it of vegetables and animals, is the extreme saltness of the water, which is infinitely stronger than that of the sea. The soil around it, equally impregnated with this salt, produces no plants; and the air itself, which becomes loaded with evaporation, and which receives also the sulphureous and bituminous vapours, cannot be favourable to vegetation; hence, the deadly aspect which reigns around this lake. In other respects, the ground about it is not marshy; and its waters are limpid and incorruptible, as must be the case with a dissolution of salt. The origin of this mineral, is easy to be discovered; for on the South-west shore, are mines of fossil salt; which, for time immemorial, have supplied the neighbouring Arabs, and even the city of Jerusalem. We find also on this shore, fragments of sulphur and bitumen; as also hot fountains, and deep crevices; which are discovered at a distance by little pyramids, built on the brink of them. At intervals, we also meet with unshapen blocks, which prejudiced eyes mistake for mutilated statues, and which pass with ignorant and superstitious pilgrims, for monuments, of the adventure of Lot's wife, though it is no where said she was metamorphosed into stone, like Niobe; but into salt, which must have melted the ensuing winter.

Some naturalists have been greatly embarrassed, to find a discharge for the water, which the Jordan is continually pouring into the lake, and have, therefore, been inclined to suspect it had a communication with the Mediterranean; but, besides that; we know of no gulf to corroborate this supposition; it has been demonstrated, by accurate calculations, that the evaporation is more than sufficient to carry off the waters brought by the river. It is, in fact, very considerable, and frequently becomes sensible to the eye, by the fogs with which the lake is covered, at the rising of the sun, and which are afterwards dispersed by the heat.

A view of the country will convince us, that the most elevated point of all Syria, is Lebanon, on the South-east of Tripoli. Scarcely do we depart from Larnic, in Cyprus, which is thirty leagues distant, before we discover its summit, capped with clouds. This is also distinctly perceivable on the map, from the course of the rivers. Next to Lebanon, the most elevated part of the country, is Mount Akkar, which becomes visible as soon as we leave Marra, in the desert. It appears, like an enormous flattened cone, and is constantly in view for two days together.

Lebanon, which gives its name to the whole extensive chain of the Kesraouan, and the country of the Druses, presents us every where with majestic mountains. At every step we meet with scenes, in which nature displays either beauty or grandeur. When we land on the coast, the lostiness and steep ascent of this mountainous ridge, which seems to inclose the country, inspires astonishment and respect. Should the curious traveller climb these summits, which bound his view, the immensity of space which he discovers becomes a fresh subject of admiration; but, completely to enjoy this majestic scene, he must ascend the very point of Lebanon, or the Sannin. There, on every side, he will view an horizon without bounds; while, in clear weather, the fight is lost over the desert, which extends to the Persian gulf, and over the sea which bathes the coasts of Europe. He seems to command the whole world, which the wandering eye, now surveying the successive chain of mountains, transports the imagination in an instant, from Antioch to Jerusalem; and, now approaching the surrounding objects, more minutely examines the rocks, woods, torrents, hill-sides, villages, and towns: and the mind secretly exults at the diminution of things, which before appeared great. The spectator contemplates the valley, obscured by stormy clouds, with a novel delight, and smiles at hearing the thunder, which had so often burnt over his head, growling under his feet; while the threatening summits of the mountains are diminished, till they appear only like the furrows of a ploughed field, or the steps of an amphitheatre; and the mind is flattered by an elevation above so many great objects, on which pride makes it look down with a secret satisfaction.

When the traveller visits the interior of these mountains, the ruggedness of the roads, the steepness of the descents, the height of the precipices, strike him at first with terror; but the sagacity of his mule soon relieves him, and he examines at his ease, those picturesque scenes which succeed each other to entertain him. There, as in the Alps, he travels whole days, to reach a place which is in sight at his departure; he winds, he descends, he skirts the hills, he climbs; and in this perpetual change of position, it seems as if some magic power varied for him at every step, the decorations of the scenery. Sometimes he sees villages ready to glide, from the rapid declivities on which they are built; and so disposed, that the terraces of one row of houses, serve as a street to the row above them. I have reckoned, says Volney, from a hundred, to a hundred and twenty of these gradations, on the same declivity, from the bottom of the valley to the top of the eminence.

The South of Syria, that is the hollow through which the Jordan flows, is a country of volcanos; the bituminous and sulphureous sources of the lake Asphaltites, the lava, the pumice stones thrown upon its banks, and the hot bath of Tabaria, demonstrate, that this valley has been the seat of a subterraneous fire, which is not yet extinguished. Clouds of smoke are often observed to issue from the lake, and new crevices to be formed upon its banks. If conjecture in such cases were not too liable to error, we might suspect that the whole valley has been formed only by a violent sinking of a country, which formerly poured the Jordan into the Mediterranean. It appears certain, at least, that the catastrophe of five cities, destroyed by fire, must have been occasioned by the eruption of a volcano, then burning. Strabo says, expressly, "that the tradition of the inhabitants of the country (that is of the Jews themselves) was, that formerly the valley of the lake, had been peopled by thirteen flourishing cities, and that they were swallowed up by a volcano."

This account seems confirmed by the quantities of ruins, still found by travellers, on the Western border. These eruptions have ceased long since; but earthquakes, which usually succeed them, still continue to be felt, at intervals, in this country. The coast, in general, is subject to them; and history gives us many examples of earthquakes, which have changed the face of Antioch, Laodicea, Tripoli, Tyre, Sidon, &c. In our time, in the year 1759, there happened one, which caused the greatest ravages. It is said to have destroyed, in the valley of Balbeck, upwards of twenty thousand persons; a loss which has never been repaired. It is remarked in Syria, that earthquakes seldom happen but in winter, after the autumnal rains; and this observation, conformable to that made by Dr. Shaw, in Barbary, seems to prove, that the action of water on the dried earth, has some share in these convulsive motions.

The variety of productions which this province affords, is astonishing. Besides wheat, rye, barley, beans, and the cotton plant, which is cultivated every where, we find a multitude of useful and agreeable productions, appropriated to different situations. Maize thrives in the light soil of Balbeck; and even rice is cultivated with success, in the low grounds. They have lately begun to plant sugar-canes, in the gardens of Saide. Indigo grows without cultivating. The hill sides of Latahia produce tobacco. As for trees, the olive-tree of Provence grows at Antioch, and at Ramla, to the height of the beech. The white mulberry tree constitutes the wealth of the whole country of the Druses, by the beautiful silks which are produced on it; while the vine, supported on poles, or winding round the oaks, supplies grapes, which afford red and white wines, that might rival those of Bourdeaux. Gaza produces dates, like Mecca, and pomegranates like Algiers; Tripoli affords oranges, equal to those of Malta; Bairont, figs, like those of Marseilles; and bananas, not inferior to those of St. Domingo; Aleppo enjoys the exclusive advantage of producing pistachios; and Damascus justly boasts of possessing all the fruits known in Europe. Twenty sorts of apricots are reckoned there; the stone of one of which, contains a kernel highly valued through all Turkey. In short, the cochineal plant, which grows on all that coast, contains, perhaps, that precious insect, in as high perfection as it is found in Mexico and St. Domingo. It was long imagined, that the cochineal was peculiar to Mexico; and the Spaniards, to secure the exclusive possession of it, have prohibited the exportation of the living cochineal, under pain of death.

With these numerous advantages of climate and of soil, it is not astonishing, that Syria should always have been esteemed a most delicious country; and that the Greeks and Romans ranked it among the most beautiful of their provinces, and even thought it not inferior to Egypt. In more moderate times, a Pacha, acquainted with both these provinces, being asked to which he gave the preference, replied, "Egypt, without doubt, is a most beautiful farm, but Syria is a charming country house."

To complete the natural history of Syria, it is proper to add, that it produces all domestic animals; and, besides these, the buffalo and the camel, whose utility is so well known. We also find antelopes in the plains, which supply the place of our roebucks; and in the mountains are numbers of wild boars. The stag and the deer are unknown there; the wolf, and the real fox, are very rare; but there is a prodigious quantity of the middle species, named jackall; which, in Syria, is called wauwee, in imitation of its howl. These jackalls go in droves, and frequent the environs of the towns, where they feed on what carrion they can find. They never attack any one, but are always ready to save themselves by flight. Every evening they seem to give each other the watch-word, and begin howling; and their cries, which are very doleful, last sometimes for a quarter of an hour. In unfrequented places, there are also hyenas. But, in return, the country is exempt from lions and bears. Water-fowl are very plentiful; land game is not so abundant. A species of the humming-bird, still exists in the territory of Saide. This and the pelican, are the only remarkable birds in Syria.

Syria, as well as Egypt, Persia, and almost all the South of Asia, is subject to another calamity, no less dreadful than the earthquakes; those clouds of locusts so often mentioned by travellers. The quantity of these insects is incredible, to all who have not witnessed their astonishing numbers; the whole earth is covered with them, for the space of several leagues. The noise they make in browzing on the trees and herbage, may be heard at a great distance; and resembles that of an army foraging in secret. The Tartars themselves, are a less destructive enemy than these little animals; one would imagine, that fire had followed their progress. Wherever these myriads spread, the verdure of the country disappears; and causes the dreary image of winter to succeed in an instant, to the rich scenery of spring. When these clouds of locusts take their flight, to surmount any obstacle, or to traverse more rapidly a defart soil, the heavens, may literally be said, to be obscured by them. Happily this calamity is not frequently repeated; for it is the inevitable forerunner of famine, and the maladies it occasions. The inhabitants of Syria have remarked, that locusts are always bred by too mild winters; and that they constantly come from the desert of Arabia. From this observation, it is easy to conceive, that the cold not having been rigorous enough to destroy their eggs, they multiply suddenly; and, the herbage failing them in the immense plains of the desert, innumerable legions issue forth. When they make their first appearance on the cultivated country, the inhabitants strive to drive them off, by raising large clouds of smoke, but frequently their herbs and wet straw fail them; they then dig trenches, where numbers of them are buried; but the two most efficacious destroyers of these insects are, the South, and South-easterly winds, and the bird called the samamar. These birds, which greatly resemble the wood-pecker, follow them in numerous flocks, like starlings, and not only greedily devour them, but kill as many as they can; accordingly they are respected by the peasants, and no one is ever allowed to shoot them. As for the Southerly and South-easterly winds, they drive with violence these clouds of locusts, over the Mediterranean, where such quantities of them are drowned, that, when their carcases are thrown on the shore, they infect the air for several days, even to a great distance.

In so extensive a country as Syria, we may reasonably presume the quality of the soil is not every where the same. The land of the mountains is, in general, rude; and that of the plains, fat and loamy; and exhibiting every sign of the greatest fecundity. In the territory of Aleppo, towards Antioch, it resembles very fine brick-dust, or Spanish dust. The waters of the Orontes, traversing this district, are tinged with white, which proceeds from the nature of the lands towards its source. Almost every where else the earth is brown, and like fine garden mould. In the plains, it is often difficult to find a pebble.

Having now given an account of the climate, face of the country, and the productions of this province, we shall proceed to treat of the different cities, and conclude with a general view of the inhabitants, who are divided into distinct nations, differing from each other in their customs, manners, and religious ceremonies; and, in a great measure, independent of the government of the Porte, though within the district of Syria. The mountains, the plains, and the deserts, are inhabited by people of a different denomination from those in the cities, and bearing scarce any resemblance even to each other.

CHAP. VI. Pachalie of Aleppo. Division of the Country and Cities.

AFTER sultan Selim I. had taken Smyrna from the Mamalukes, he subjected the province to the government of viceroys, or pachas, invested with unlimited power. The more effectually to secure his authority, he divided the country into five governments, or pachalies, which division still remains. These pachalies, are those of Aleppo, Tripoli, and Saide, lately removed to Acre; that of Damascus, and lastly, that of Palestine, the seat of which, is sometimes at Gaza, and sometimes at Jerusalem. Since the time of Selim, the limits of these pachalies have often varied, but their general extent has been always the same.

Following this division of the country, we shall proceed to give a description of the most remarkable places in each pachalie. We will begin with the most Northerly, that of Aleppo. This pachalie extends from the Euphrates, to the Mediterranean, between two lines, one drawn from Scandaroon to Beer; the other from the Beles to the sea, by Mara, and the bridge of Shoger. This space principally consists of two plains, that of Antioch to the West, and that of Aleppo to the East.

The places which merit most attention in this pachalie are, first, the city of Aleppo, called by the Arabs Halab, and, by ancient geographers Chalybon. This city is the capital of the government, and the ordinary residence of the pacha. It is situated in the vast plain extending from the Orontes to the Euphrates; and which, towards the South, terminates in the desart. The situation of Aleppo, besides the advantage of a rich and fruitful soil, possesses also that of a stream of fresh water, which never becomes dry. This river, which is about as large as that of the new river near London, terminates six leagues below Aleppo, in a morafs, sull of wild boars and pelicans. Near Aleppo, its banks are covered with a fertile earth, and laid out in gardens, or rather orchards; which, in a hot country, and especially in Turkey, cannot but be delightful. The city is in itself, one of the most agreeable in Syria; and is, perhaps, the cleanest and best built of any in Turkey. On whatever side it is approached, its numerous minarets and domes, present an agreeable prospect to the eye, fatigued with the continued sameness of the brown and parched plains. In the centre is an artificial fountain, surrounded by a dry ditch, on which is a ruinous fortress. From hence we have a fine prospect of the whole city; and to the North, discover the snowy tops of the mountains of Bailan; and on the West, those which separate the Orontes from the sea; while to the South and East, the eye can discern as far as the Euphrates. In the time of Omar, this castle stopped the progress of the Arabs, for several months, and was at last taken by treachery; but, at present, would not be able to resist the feeblest assault. Its slight walls, low and without a buttress, are in ruins; its little old towers, are in no better condition; and it has not four cannon fit for service.

Aleppo, says Tott, celebrated for the number of its inhabitants, the beauty of its edifices, the extent of its commerce, and the riches which that produce, is situated in a hollow valley, close to a small river. This water, which supplies the inhabitants of Aleppo, appears as extraordinary in the country through which it runs, as the city itself, in the desart in which it stands.

The houses, which are all built with terraces on their tops, are so equal in height, that there are seldom any steps to ascend, in going from one house to another; while several large vaulted streets increase the facility of communication, by affording a passage to every part of the city, free from the embarrassment of open streets. They are carefully paved, have gutters, and a foot pavement on each side, and the middle of the street is laid with brick, the small end upwards, for the convenience of the horses.

In this city we find a cleanliness, unknown to other cities in Turkey, even to the capital itself. This regulation is not attended with the same trouble as in Europe; there are ass-drivers, who go about the city and take up the rubbish and dirt, which every inhabitant is obliged to sweep together.

Though Aleppo cannot be esteemed a place of importance in war, as a commercial city it has a different appearance. It is the emporium of Armenia, and the Diarbekar; sends caravans to Bagdad, and into Persia; and communicates with the Persian gulf and India, by Bassora; with Egypt and Mecca, by Damascus; and with Europe, by Scandaroon (Alexandretta) and Latahia. The chief commodities are, raw or spun cottons, coarse cloths, goats hair, gall and pistachio nuts, and shawls; the wool of which, is so fine and silky, that the whole handkerchief may be contained in the two hands closed. The most beautiful comes from Cashmire; their value is from six guineas to fifty pounds.

The French have a consul in this city, and seven counting-houses; the English and the Venetian two; and the merchants of Leghorn one. The late emperor Joseph, appointed one in 1784, in the person of a rich Jew, who shaved his beard to assume the uniform and the sword.

This city is not exceeded in extent, by any in Turkey, except Constantinople and Cairo, and perhaps Smyrna. The number of inhabitants has been computed at two hundred thousand. The people of Aleppo, are justly esteemed the most civilized in all Turkey; and the European merchants no where enjoy so much liberty, or are treated with so much respect.

The air of Aleppo is very dry and piercing; but, at the same time, very salubrious, for all who are not troubled with asthmatic complaints. The city, however, and the environs, are subject to a singular endemial disorder, which is called the ring-worm, or pimple of Aleppo; it is, in fact, a pimple, which is at first inflammatory, and at length becomes an ulcer of the size of the nail. The usual duration of this ulcer is one year, it commonly fixes on the face, and leaves a scar, which disfigures almost all the inhabitants. It is alledged, that every stranger who resides there three months, is attacked with it; experience has taught, that the best mode of treatment is to use no remedy. No reason is assigned for this malady; but it is suspected to proceed from the quality of the water, as it is likewise frequent in the neighbouring villages, in some parts of the Diarbekar; and even in certain districts near Damascus, where the soil and the water have the same appearances.

For a long time, says Mariti, this disease was attributed to the subtility of the air of Aleppo; but those persons, who have never drank water till it has been boiled, remaining free from this distemper, makes it rather supposed to arise from the water. There have been persons, who staid in this city only a few days, who have been attacked by this disease even a year after. The method of cure is very simple; nothing more is necessary, than to lay an ivy leaf, with a little cerate spread upon it, over the tumour, and this brings it to a suppuration in the course of a year. No particular regimen is required; and, when a cure is effected, the body generally enjoys good health for a long while after.

Every one has heard of the pigeons of Aleppo, which serve as couriers at Alexandretta and Bagdad. This use of them, which is not fabulous, has been laid aside for the last thirty of forty years, because the curd robbers killed the pigeons. The manner of sending advice by them was this: they took pairs, which had young ones, and carried them on horseback to the place from whence they wished them to return, taking care to let them have a full view. When the news arrived, the correspondent tied a billet to the pigeon's foot, and let her loose. The bird, impatient to see its young, flew off like lightning, and arrived at Aleppo in ten hours from Alexandretta, and in two days from Bagdad. This pigeon has nothing peculiar in its form, except its nostrils, which, instead of being smooth and even, are swelled and rough.

The open situation of Aleppo, brings a great number of sea-birds there, and affords the curious a singular amusement: if a person goes after dinner, on the terrace of the houses, and makes a motion as if throwing bread, numerous flocks of birds will instantly fly round him, though at first he cannot discover one; but they are floating aloft in the air, and descend in a moment to seize in their flight, the morsels of bread, which the inhabitants frequently amuse themselves with throwing them.

Next to Aleppo, Antioch, called by the Arabs Antahia, claims our attention. This city, anciently renowned for the luxury of its inhabitants, is now no more than a ruinous town; whose houses, built with mud and straw, and narrow and miry streets, exhibit every appearance of misery and wretchedness. These houses are situated on the Southern bank of the Orontes, at the extremity of an old decayed bridge: they are covered to the South by a mountain, upon the slope of which is wall, built by the Crusaders.

Notwithstanding the unpolished manners of its inhabitants, Antioch was better calculated than Aleppo, to be the emporium of the Europeans. By clearing the mouth of the Orontes, which is six leagues lower down, boats might have been towed up that river; though, according to Volney, they could not have sailed up, as Pococke affirms; the current being extremely rapid. We no longer hear at Antioch, either of the grove of Daphne, or of the voluptuous scenes, of which it was the theatre. The plain of Antioch, though the soil of it is excellent, is uncultivated and abandoned to the Turcomen; but the hills on the side of the Orontes, abound in plantations of figs and olives, vines and mulberry-trees, which are planted in quincunx, and exhibit a landscape worthy our finest provinces.

The gulf towards the North-east, is remarkable for nothing, but the town of Alexandretta, or Scandaroon, of which it bears the name. This town, situated on the sea-shore, is, properly speaking, nothing but a village without walls; in which, the tombs are more numerous than the houses, and entirely owing its existence to the road it commands. This is the only road in all Syria, where vessels anchor on a solid bottom, without their cables being liable to chafe; but, in other respects, it has so many serious inconveniences, that necessity alone prevents the merchants from abandoning it.

First, it is infested during winter, by a wind peculiar to this place, which, rushing from the snowy summits of the mountains, frequently forces ships to drag their anchors several leagues. Secondly, when the snow begins to cover the mountains, which surround the gulf, tempestuous winds arise, which prevent vessels from entering it, for three or four months. Thirdly, the road from Alexandretta to Aleppo, by the plain, is infested by curd robbers, who conceal themselves in the neighbouring rocks, and frequently attack and plunder the strongest caravans. Another reason more forcible than all these is, the unwholesomeness of the air of Alexandretta. It may be affirmed, that it every year carries off one-third of the crews of vessels, which remain there during the summer; nay, ships frequently lose all their men in a couple of months. The season for this epidemic disorder, is principally from May, to the end of September; it is an intermittent fever of the most malignant kind, and accompanied with obstructions of the liver, which terminate in a dropsy. The cities of Tripoli, Acre, and Larneca, in Cyprus, are subject to the same disorder, though in a less degree. In all these places, the same local circumstances seem to have given birth to the contagion; the cause of it is to be ascribed to the adjoining morasses, and standing waters; which, in consequence, produce vapours, and mephitic exhalations; a convincing proof of this is, that the disorder does not prevail in seasons, when no rain has fallen. But, unfortunately, Alexandretta is condemned, from its situation, never to be wholly exempt from it; for the plain on which the town is built, is so low and flat, that the rivulets finding no declivity, can never reach the sea. This plain is about a league in breadth, and lies at the foot of the mountains, and has been formed from earth brought down by the torrents. When they are swelled by the winter rains, the sea, swelled likewise by tempests, hinders their discharging themselves into it; hence, these waters, forced to spread themselves, form lakes in the plain. On the approach of summer, the waters become corrupted by the heat, and exhale vapours equally corrupt, which cannot disperse, being confined by the mountains that encircle the gulf. The entrance of the bay, besides, lies to the West, which, in those countries is the most unhealthy exposure, when it corresponds with the sea. The labour necessary to remedy this, would be immense; and, under a government like that of the Turks, impossible. A few years ago, the merchants of Aleppo, disgusted with the numerous inconveniences of Alexandretta, wished to abandon that post, and carry the trade to Latakia. They proposed to the pacha of Tripoli, to repair the harbour at their own expence, provided he would grant them an exemption of all duties for ten years. To induce him to comply with their request, the agent they employed, talked much of the advantage which would, in time, result to the whole country. "But what signifies to me what may happen in time, replied the pacha? I was yesterday at Marach, tomorrow, perhaps, I shall be at Djedda; why should I deprive myself of present advantages, which are certain, for future benefits I cannot hope to partake?" The European factors were obliged, therefore, to remain at Scandaroon. There are three of these factors; two for the French, and one for the English and Venetians. The only curiosity which they have to amuse strangers with, consists in six or seven marble monuments, sent from England, on which are written, Here lies such a one, carried off in the flower of his age, by the fatal effects of a contagious air. The fight of these is the more distressing, as the languid air, yellow complexion, livid eyes, and dropsical bellies of those who shew them, make it but too probable, they cannot long escape the same fate. It is true, they have some resource in the village of Bailen; the pure air, and excellent waters of which, surprisingly restore the sick. This village, situated among the mountains, three leagues from Alexandretta, presents the most picturesque appearance. It is built among precipices, in a narrow and deep valley, from whence the gulf of Scandaroon is seen, as through a tube. The houses, leaning against the steep declivities of the two mountains, are so disposed, that the terraces of the lower serve as streets and courts to those above. In winter, cascades pour down on every side, which stun the inhabitants with their noise; and, in their fall, sometimes rend off large pieces of the rocks, and even throw down the houses. The cold is very severe there, during that season, but the summer delightful; the inhabitants, who speak only Turkish, live on their goats and buffaloes, and the produce of a few gardens which they cultivate.

On the road from Alexandretta to Aleppo, is the village of Martawan, celebrated among the Turks and Europeans, on account of an extraordinary practice of the inhabitants, who let out their wives and daughters for a trifling sum. This prostitution, held in abhorrence by the Arabs, seems to have originated in some religious custom, which ought, perhaps, to be sought for in the ancient worship of the goddess Venus, or be attributed to the community of women, permitted by the Ansarians, to which tribe the inhabitants of Mortawan belong. The Franks pretend that the women are pretty. But it is probable, that long abstinence at sea, and the variety of intrigue, constitute all their merit; for their exterior announces nothing but the disgusting uncleanliness of misery.

Two days journey to the North-east of Aleppo, is the town of Mambedj; so celebrated in ancient times, under the names of Bambyce, and Hierapolis. No traces remain of the temple of that great goddess, with whose worship Lucian has made us acquainted. The only remarkable monument is a subterraneous canal, which conducts the water from the mountains of the North, to the distance of four leagues. All this country, was formerly full of such aqueducts: the Assyrians, Medes, and Persians, esteemed it a religious duty to convey the water to the desart, in order to multiply, according to the precepts of Zoroaster, the principles of life and abundance: we, therefore, at every step, meet with astonishing proofs of ancient population. Along the whole road from Aleppo to Hama, may be seen the ruins of ancient villages, cisterns fallen in, and the remains of fortresses; nay, even of temples.

CHAP. VII. Pachalie of Tripoli.

THE pachalie of Tripoli, comprehends the country, which stretches along the Mediterranean, from Latahia to the Nark-el-Kelb, and is bounded on the West by that torrent, and the chain of mountains which overlook the Orontes. The principal part of this government is hilly; the sea-coast alone, between Tripoli and Latahia, is a level country. This pachalie, contains several different tribes and religions. Among its remarkable cities, we must first mention Tripoli. It is situated on the river Kadisha, at the distance of a quarter of a league from its mouth, and precisely at the foot of Lebanon, which overlooks and surrounds it with its branches, to the East, the South, and even a little to the North-west. It is separated from the sea, by a small triangular plain, called La Marine, half a league in breadth; at the point of which is the village where the vessels land their goods.

All the environs of Tripoli, are laid out in orchards, where the nopal grows spontaneously, and the white mulberry is cultivated for the silk-worm; and, the pomegranate, the orange, and the lemon-tree, for their fruit; which is of the greatest beauty. But these places, though delightful to the eye, are unhealthy. Every year, from July to September, epidemic fevers, like those of Scandaroon and Cyprus, rage here: these are owing to the artificial inundations, with which the mulberry-trees are watered, in order that they may throw out their second leaves. Besides, as the city is open only to the West, the air does not circulate, and the spirits are in a constant state of oppression, which makes health at best but a kind of convalescence. The air, though more humid, is more salubrious at La Marine, doubtless from its having greater freedom of circulation. It is worthy of observation also, that the Southern shore of this plain, is full of the ruins of habitations, and columns broken and buried in the earth, or in the sea sands. The Franks have employed a great number of them, in the building of their walls; in the remains of which, they are still to be seen laid cross-ways.

The commerce of Tripoli, consists almost wholly in indifferent coarse silks, which are made use of for laces. It is observed, they are every day losing their quality. The reason assigned is, the decay of the mulberry-trees; of which, scarcely any thing now remains but some hollow trunks. A stranger instantly asks, why not plant new ones? This is an European observation. Here they never plant; because, were they to build or plant, the pacha would say, this man has money. He would send for him, and demand it of him: should he say he had none, he would receive the bastinado; should he confess, he would still receive it, in order to extort from him the acknowledgment that he had more. This commerce is in the hands of the French alone. They have a consul here, and three commercial houses. Their exports are silk and spunges, fished up in the road; these they exchange for cloths, cochineal, sugar, and West-India coffee; but this factory, both with respect to imports and exports, is inferior to its subordinate town Latakia.

The town of Latahia, founded by Seleucus Nicator, under the name of Laodicea, is situated at the base, and on the Southern side of a small peninsula, which projects half a league into the sea. Its port is a sort of bason, environed by a mole, the entrance of which is very narrow. It might contain five and twenty, or thirty vessels; but the Turks have suffered it so to be choaked up, as scarcely to admit four. Notwithstanding this, Latahia carries on a very great commerce, consisting chiefly in tobacco; of which, upwards of twenty cargoes are annually sent to Damietta. In the time of Strabo, the exports consisted in its famous wines, the produce of the hill sides. Even then, Egypt was the market by the way of Alexandria. Neither Latahia, nor Tripoli, can be mentioned as places of strength. They have neither cannon nor soldiers; a single privateer would make a conquest of them both. They are each supposed to contain from four, to five thousand inhabitants.

On the coasts between these towns, we meet with several inhabited villages, which were formerly large cities; but we find still more places, which have only the half destroyed, remains of ancient habitations. Among the latter, is the rock or island of Roud, formerly a powerful city and republic, known by the name of Aradus. Not a single wall is remaining of all that multitude of houses; which, according to Strabo, were built with more stories than even those of Rome. The liberty enjoyed by the inhabitants, had rendered it very popular, and it subsisted by naval commerce, manufactures, and arts. At present, the island is deserted; nor has tradition even retained the memory of a spring of fresh water in its environs, which the people of Aradus discovered at the bottom of the sea, and from which they drew water, in time of war, by means of a leaden bell, and a leathern pipe fitted to its bottom. The river Ibrahim, the ancient Adonis, which is two leagues to the Southward, has the only bridge to be seen, that of Tripoli excepted, from thence to Antioch. It is of a single arch, fifty feet wide, and upwards of thirty high, of a very light architecture, and appears to have been a work of the Arabs.

CHAP. VIII. Pachalie of Acre.

TO the South of the pachalie of Tripoli, and on the same coast, is a third pachalie; that, till now, has borne the name of the city of Saide, its capital; but may henceforward assume that of Acre, to which place the pacha has of late years transferred his residence. This city, which is now the principal one in the pachalie, is situated in a large plain, bounded on the South by Mount Carmel; on the West, by the mountains of Galilee: and on the North, by another mountain, called the ladder of Tyre: such is the description given of it by Josephus. It was formerly reckoned among the ancient cities of Phenicia. The addition of St. John, seems to have been given it, on account of the hospital knights of that order, who took refuge there after the ruin of Jerusalem.

Nothing is now to be seen of this ancient city, but the shapeless remains of monuments erected in it by the Christians. In the Western part, are found some ruins of a church, dedicated to St. Andrew. Three large windows, which time has not yet destroyed, give us a very grand idea of this building.

The palace of the grand master of the order of St. John of Jerusalem, with the whole extent of the hospital, serve at present for a habitation to the chief of Acre, together with his family and part of his cavalry.

This edifice, which is almost entire, owes its preservation to the astonishing thickness of its walls. It is particularly remarkable for two high towers, and its subterranean apartments; which contained hand-mills that are still sometimes used.

In one of these towers, is an immense hall; in the centre of which, there is a large fountain, ornamented with marble of every kind.

Opposite to the palace of the pacha, is a large square; in the Northern part of which, arise the ruins of the church and monastery of St. Clara. It was in this memorable asylum, that some virtuous virgins mutilated their visages, when the city was sacked and taken by the Saracens, to secure themselves from the brutality of these barbarians; who, finding them objects of horror, butchered them without mercy.

There are here two Latin churches, in one of which public worship is performed by the fathers of the Holy Land, who inhabit a very commodious hospital, which stands close to it, and which is open at all times to travellers and devotees, who are pious enough to go and visit the tombs in Galilee.

The streets of Acre are all so narrow, that when a camel goes along the broadest of them, it is impossible for any other animal to pass at the same time.

Cut stones only, and not bricks, are employed for constructing the houses. The roofs, very different from ours, are made flat, in the form of a terrace, upon which the inhabitants walk; and which brings to remembrance those mentioned by Vitruvius. The construction is singular. When the walls of an edifice are finished, and the upper story is covered with beams of greater or less strength, cypress boards are then laid closely one against another, and nailed down to them. This covering supports, in its turn, several joists, placed transversely; over which are spread hay and chopped straw, mixed with lime and small stones. The whole being made smooth by means of a mallet, a layer of cinder is then thrown over this composition; afterwards a second of lime and sand; and lastly, a third, consisting of a kind of plaister, formed of lime, ashes, and pounded cinders, which is smoothed with a roller, and to which a lustre and polish are given, by a certain kind of wooden instrument. This is the usual method of constructing these terraces.

If this floor happens to crack by the excessive heat, the fissures are filled up with a mixture of lime, ashes and oil; and this composition will resist the longest rains, and at length become so hard, that water cannot penetrate it. Roofs built in the form of a cupola, are covered or encrusted with a substance, consisting of pounded flints and lime, which is applied with great care, in order that it may acquire a lustre.

In this city are two Bazars, or markets, always well supplied. One contains provisions of every kind; and the other is furnished with an assortment of cloths and stuffs for making dresses.

In the same spot, are also two public baths, ornamented with marble, and pretty well constructed: there are here, likewise, several coffee-houses, which give this place a lively and agreeable appearance.

The air of this city is unwholesome; and various diseases prevail in it every year during the great heats. These, no doubt, are occasioned by the narrowness of the streets, and some putrid marshes in the neighbourhood. The best precaution that Europeans can take, against the malignity of this air, is to confine themselves to a moderate diet; and above all, to avoid night dews, and not to rise till the sun has dissipated that collection of clouds and vapours, with which the atmosphere is loaded every morning.

This city was raised to its present consequence, by a very extraordinary character, Shaik Daher, who for many years usurped the government of it; consenting, for form's sake, to be annually invested with it, by a bashaw from the Porte; but, in other respects, paid no regard to their authority. He governed his people with great justice, and shewed an extraordinary partiality to the Christians; by which means, he drew a considerable number of them to settle in his territories, where they were secure from those extortions practised on them by the neighbouring pachas. By the following act of justice and humanity, shewn to some pilgrims who were shipwrecked on his coast, he acquired the confidence of succeeding ones, that they preferred landing at Acre, where they paid the customary dues of landing, to Yafa, which was before the port where all pilgrims landed, in their passage from Europe to the Holy Land. Two vessels filled with Greeks, French, and Armenians, to the number of two hundred, were in their passage from Europe to Yafa, driven on shore by a dreadful storm in the gulf of Acre. Though they had the good fortune to escape the fury of the waves, they found themselves in a dangerous and disagreeable situation on shore. Some of the neighbouring peasants, a merciless and thieving race, called Gorans, attacked them, and stripped them of their clothes, and every thing they had saved from the wreck. The captains of the ships were no more respected than the rest of the company; twelve of whom only having found means to escape, arrived at Acra, during the time it was ravaged by the plague.

The governor informed of this massacre, dispatched in great haste a party of soldiers, who found nothing on the shore but some mangled bodies. Their orders were, to take all the Gorans without distinction, whether guilty or innocent. Such of these assassins as they could find, were hung; and when the vengeance of the princes were once satisfied, his compassion took pleasure in comforting the unhappy travellers, whom he furnished with lodging, food, and cloathing. Fate, however, had not yet done persecuting them; for they were attacked by the plague which spared only eight of them. Deeply affected by this new misfortune, and, in order to secure them from every accident, the chief ordered twenty men to escort them on horseback, to Jerusalem; and gave them, from his treasury, a sum sufficient to maintain them for a considerable time. This was a noble and generous action, which gained him the esteem and affection of his subjects. He found also another recompence, in the profit he afterwards gained from the Armenians; for that nation, deeply impressed with the kindness shewn by the governor of Acre, to their eight citizens, when any of the inhabitants came on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, they stopped at Acre, in preference to Yafa, to pay there the duty of landing. They did the same on their return; and the greatest part of these pilgrims being rich merchants, increased the commerce of the city, by purchasing and selling the various kinds of merchandize.

As soon as Daher Omar saw himself fixed in the government, like an intelligent man well acquainted with the true source of opulence, he endeavoured by every method he could, to introduce commerce into it. The polite and affable manner he behaved towards the European merchants, added to the strict justice which he maintained in traffic, drew thither people from all parts of the world; and the English, the French, and the Dutch, all wished to partake in the advantages which the city of Acre held forth, by the abundance of its productions, particularly its cotton.

Daher readily foresaw, that the number of European merchants would increase, in proportion to the facility which they might find in vending the merchandize they brought along with them. On this account, he diminished the custom-house dues, and rendered his country as advantageous as convenient for the Turkish and Arabian merchants, of the city of Damascus; who used before to supply themselves with goods at the market of Seyd. These, almost immediately, began to come to Acre, in numerous caravans, which made trade decrease in the neighbouring cities; and opened to Europe, an easy communication for exporting all sorts of merchandize, such as drugs, and cloth of every kind, which are furnished in great abundance, by the vast commerce of Damascus. In short, the trade of the city of Acre, rose to so much importance and consideration, that several princes of Europe, sent thither consuls, to protect and support such of their subjects, as had established themselves here as merchants.

The French had a vice-consul here for a considerable time; but, on account of some disputes with the merchants, it was found necessary to recall him, and the duties of consul are now discharged by the merchants themselves, in rotation.

England also has a vice-consul here, who belongs to the consulship of Aleppo. By letters patent from the Imperial internuncio, at Constantinople, and the Venetian consul, resident at Cyprus, he is commissioned to protect at Acre, the merchants belonging to both these nations. He watches also, over the interests of Ragusa, for the consul at Cyprus.

All affairs respecting the Dutch trade, are managed by a particular consul, dependant like the English vice-consul, on the consul-general of Aleppo.

The expence of freight for merchandize, exported from Acre to Europe, is regulated by the usual rate at Cyprus; and this is followed through all the rest of Syria.

Near the sea-shore, about two hundred and fifty paces from the city, is the river Belus; "the bed of which is confined and narrow, and contains abundance of glass particles mixed with its sand." Pliny, who gives us this information, shews how that transparent matter was indebted for its origin to the oriental shores. This valuable discovery being carried to perfection, raised man to the heavens; brought to his eye remote objects, the immense distances of which he can calculate and measure; submitted to his inspection, the planets and celestial bodies; and permitted him, like the eagle, to approach the burning rays of light, which he can divide and re-unite at pleasure. It secures him also from the injuries of the air, when, from the center of his habitation, he can behold, through its transparent pores, the splendor of day in its full glory.

The river Belus, also is celebrated by the historian Flavian, who says, "it is worthy of admiration, both on account of the agreeable valley through which it passes, and the sand found on its borders." When foreign vessels sail along these coasts, they take on board some of this sand, to serve them as ballast; and the Venetians carry away more of it for that purpose, than any other nation.

About eight leagues east of Acre, near Lake Tabaria, is a fountain of warm mineral waters. For want of being cleaned, it is filled with a black mud, which is a genuine Ethiops martial. Persons attacked by rheumatic complaints, find great relief, and are frequently cured by baths of this mud.

Balbeck, celebrated by the Greeks and Latins, under the name of Heliopolis, or the city of the sun, is situated at the foot of Anti-Lebanon, precisely on the last rising ground, where the mountain terminates in the plain. What principally attracts our attention here, is a large edifice, adjoining to the city; which, by its lofty walls and rich columns, manifestly appears to be one of those temples, which antiquity has left for our admiration. When we consider the extraordinary magnificence of this temple, we cannot but be astonished at the silence of the Greek and Roman authors respecting it. Wood, who has carefully examined all the ancient writers, has found no mention of it, except in a fragment of John of Antioch, who attributes the construction of this edifice to Antoninus Pius. The inscriptions which remain corroborate this opinion. We are ignorant of the state of this city, in remote antiquity; but it is to be presumed, that its situation on the road from Tyre to Palmyra, gave it some part of the commerce of these opulent capitals. Under the Romans, in the time of Augustus, it is mentioned as a garrison town. Its present state is deplorable. The wretched government of the Turks had greatly impaired it, and the earthquake of 1759, compleated its destruction.

Saide, the ancient Sidon, so celebrated in antiquity, and which was the late residence of the pacha, is like all the Turkish towns, ill built, dirty, and full of modern ruins. On the South side, on a small eminence, is a fort, which a few cannon would easily destroy, being already half in ruins. This is a considerable trading town, and the chief emporium of Damascus. The French, who are the only Europeans to be found in it, have a consul, and five or six commercial houses. The manufacture of cotton is the principal art of the inhabitants; the number of whom, may be estimated at about five thousand.

Six leagues to the South of Saide, following the coast, is the ancient Tyre, now dwindled to a village of fifty or sixty families. The vicissitudes of time, or rather the barbarism of the Greeks of the Lower Empire, have effected this annihilation of its ancient grandeur. Instead of that ancient commerce, so active and so extensive, Tyre reduced to a miserable village, has no other trade than the exportation of a few sacks of corn, and raw cotton; nor any merchant but a single Greek factor, in the service of the French at Saide, who scarcely makes sufficient profit to maintain his family.

CHAP. IX. Pachalie of Damascus.

THE pachalie of Damascus, the fourth and last of Syria, comprehends nearly the whole Eastern part of that country. The first city that presents itself in this pachalie, is Damascus. It is situated in a large plain, open to the South and East, but shut in to the North and West, by mountains, which limit the view at no great distance; but, in return, a number of rivulets arise from these mountains, which render the territory of Damascus the best watered, and most delicious province of all Syria; the Arabs speak of it with enthusiasm; and think they can never sufficiently extol the freshness and verdure of its orchards, the abundance and variety of its fruits, its numerous streams, and the clearness of its rills and fountains. This is also the only part of Syria, where there are detached pleasure-houses in the open country. No city affords so many canals and fountains; each house has one; and all these waters are furnished by three rivulets, or branches of the same river, which, after fertilizing the gardens for a course of three leagues, flow into a hollow of the desart, to the South-east, where they form a morass, called the morass of the meadow.

With such a situation it cannot be disputed, that Damascus is one of the most agreeable cities in Turkey; but it is still deficient in point of salubrity. The inhabitants complain, that the white waters of the Barrada are cold and hard; and it is observed, that the natives are subject to obstructions; that the whiteness of their skin, is rather the paleness of sickness, than the colour of health; and that the too great use of fruit, particularly of apricots, occasions there, every summer and autumn, intermittent fevers and dysenteries.

This city is supposed to contain eighty thousand inhabitants. The greater part of these are Arabs and Turks; the number of Christians are estimated at above 15000. The Turks never speak of the people of Damascus, without observing, they are the most mischievous in the whole empire: the Arabs, by a play on words, have made this proverb: shamé, shoumé. The man of Damascus, wicked: on the contrary, they say of the people of Aleppo, Halabé, tehelibi; the Aleppo man, a petit maitre. From prejudice, owing to the difference of religions, they also add, that the Christians there are more vile and knavish than elsewhere. In this they resemble the inhabitants of Cairo; like them they detest the Franks, nor is it possible to appear at Damascus in a European dress.

This hatred which the people of Damascus have for Christians, arises from their communication with Mecca. Their city, they look upon to be a holy place, since it is one of the gates of the Caaba; for Damascus is the rendezvous for all the pilgrims from the North of Asia, as Cairo is for those from Africa. Their number every year, amounts from thirty to fifty thousand; many repair hither four months, before the usual time; but the greatest number only at the end of the Ramadan. Damascus then resembles an immense fair; nothing is to be seen but strangers from all parts of Turkey, and even Persia; and every place is full of camels, horses, mules, and even merchandize. At length, after some days preparation, all this vast multitude set out confusedly on their march; and, travelling by the confines of the desart, arrive in forty days at Mecca, for the festival of the Bairam. As this caravan traverses the country of several independent Arab tribes, it is necessary to make treaties with the Bedouins, for a free passage, and take them for guides. Frequent disputes arise on this subject, between the Shaiks, of which the pacha avails himself to make a better bargain; but, in general, the preference is given to the tribe of Sardia, which encamps to the Southward of Damascus, along the Hauran: the pacha sends to the shaik, a mace, a tent, and a pellise, to signify he takes him as chief conductor. From this moment, it is the shaik's business to furnish camels at a stated price; these he hires from his tribe and his allies; the pacha is responsible for no losses, which are all on the shaik's own account. On an average, ten thousand camels perish yearly; which form a very advantageous article of commerce for the Arabs.

It must not be imagined, that devotion is the sole motive of all these expences and fatigues. Pecuniary interest has a more considerable share in this expedition. The caravan affords the means of engrossing every lucrative branch of commerce; and almost all the pilgrims convert it into a matter of speculation. On leaving their own country, they load themselves with merchandize, which they sell on the road; the specie arising from this, added to what they have brought with them, is conveyed to Mecca, where they exchange it for all kinds of India goods. Sometimes the Arabs pillage the stragglers, and carry off detached parties of the caravans. But, in general, the pilgrims arrive safe, in which case their profits are very considerable. At all events, they are recompensed in the veneration attached to the title of Hadji, (pilgrim) and by the pleasure of boasting to their countrymen, of the wonders of the Caabas, and Mount Ararat; of magnifying the prodigious crowds of pilgrims, and the number of victims on the day of the Bairam; and, recounting the dangers and fatigues they have undergone, the extraordinary figure of the Bedouins, the desart without water, and the tomb of the prophet at Medina. These wonderful tales produce their usual effect, that is, they excite the admiration and enthusiasm of the audience; though, from the confession of sincere pilgrims, nothing can be more wretched than this journey. Accordingly, this transient admiration has not prevented a proverb, which does little honour to these pious travellers. Distrust thy neighbour, says the Arab, if he has made a Hadj; but if he has made two, make haste to leave thy house: and, in fact, experience has proved, that the greater part of the devotees of Mecca, are peculiarly insolent and treacherous, as if they wished to recompence themselves for having been dupes, by becoming knaves.

By means of this caravan, Damascus is become the center of a very extensive commerce. By Aleppo, the merchants of this city correspond with Armenia, Anadolia, the Diarbekar, and even with Persia. They send caravans to Cairo; which, following a route, frequented in the time of the patriarchs, take their course by Tabaria, Nablous, and Gaza. In return, they receive the merchandize of Constantinople, and Europe, by way of Saide and Bairout. The home-consumption, is balanced by silk and cotton stuffs, which are manufactured here in great quantities, and are very well made; by the dried fruits of their own growth, and sweetmeat cakes of roses, apricots, and peaches, of which Turkey consumes to the amount of near a million of livres. The remainder, paid for by the course of exchange, occasions a considerable circulation of money, in custom-house duties, and the commission of the merchants. This commerce has existed in these countries, from the most remote antiquity. It has flowed, through different channels, according to the changes of the government, and other circumstances; but it has every where left very apparent traces of the opulence it produced.

This city is also in great reputation for its swordblades, and for all manner of cutlery-ware, the water being very proper for tempering iron and steel.

Near Damascus, is a beautiful meadow of great extent; from the earth of which, it is said, Adam was formed. There is also a grotto in it, and a Turkish oratory, in which, St. Paul is said to have received his sight after his vision. The place is likewise shewn, where St. Paul was let down from the wall in a basket.

Another curiosity in the city of Damascus is, a large coffee-house, capable of containing between four and five hundred people, shaded with trees, in which is a small island, encircled with a rapid stream of water. Here the Turks resort every day in great numbers, to solace themselves upon the duans, they being delighted with nothing so much, as the sight of water and verdure; and if, to these, a beautiful face is added, the three together, according to a Turkish proverb, will banish the most obstinate melancholy.

The duans, are broad seats, raised sixteen or eighteen inches above the floor, which are covered with carpets, and furnished with cushions to lean on. In the houses of people of rank, at Damascus, these apartments are fitted up in a most expensive and luxurious stile. In these, the Turks eat, drink, sleep, smoke, receive visits, and perform their devotions; and, a stranger is seldom permitted the sight of any others.

Among other things deserving of notice in this city, is the church of St. John the Baptist, now converted into a mosque. This is a most spacious, lofty, and beautiful building; but a particular description of it is difficult to be obtained; a Christian being scarce allowed to set his foot in it. There is one room in this church, in which the head of St. John the Baptist is kept, esteemed so very sacred by the Mahometans, that it is penal even for a Turk to go into this apartment. Maundrell relates, that he was told by a Turkish nobleman, that they expected Our Saviour would descend into this mosque, at the day of judgment, as Mahomet would into that of Jerusalem.

No Frank is permitted to ride on horseback, when he goes to visit the gardens, or other curiosities round the city; he must either walk on foot, or be mounted on an ass; and for this purpose there are always asses, standing ready equipped in the streets, to be hired. The rider has no occasion, when he is mounted, to use either whip or spur, as the master of the ass, or his servant, follows behind, and forces him along with a goad, so that he performs his stage in less time than could be expected from so sluggish a creature.

The street called Strait, in the Acts of the Apostles, still retains its name at Damascus; or at least, they shew one, that they pretend to be the same, which is about half a mile in length, but so narrow with the houses jutting over, that its length and straitness is not to be discerned.

At a little distance from Damascus, is a high hill, on which, according to tradition, Cain and Abel offered sacrifice; and where Cain afterwards killed his brother. A little further, is a Greek convent, called Sidonia, situated upon a steep rock, on the side of a large valley; the ascent of which, approaches so nearly to the perpendicular, that people are obliged to go up to it by stairs cut in the rock. In this convent, founded by Justinian, and remarkable for its excellent wine, are about twenty Greek monks, and twice the number of nuns, who live together as in one family, without any separation. Such a retirement, with good wine, agreeable company, and fine women, can be no great mortification.

In this pachalie are also, celebrated remains of Palmyra, a city famous in the third age of Rome, for the part it took in the differences between the Parthians and the Romans; and its destruction under Aurelian. History has since preserved the name of this great city; but it is merely the name, for the world had very confused ideas of the real grandeur and power it had possessed. They were scarcely even suspected to exist, till, towards the end of the last century, some English merchants of Aleppo, tired with hearing the Bedouins talk of the immense ruins to be found in the desart, resolved to ascertain the truth of these extraordinary relations. Their narrative, published in the Philosophical Transactions, met with many who refused belief; men could neither conceive nor persuade themselves, that in a spot so remote from any habitable place, such a magnificent city as their drawings described, could have subsisted. But, since Dawkins published, in 1753, the plans and views he himself had taken on the spot, in 1751, all doubts are at an end; and, it is universally acknowledged, that antiquity has left nothing, either in Greece or Italy, to be compared with the magnificence of the ruins of Palmyra.

It is scarcely possible to imagine any thing more striking, says Wood, than the view of these ruins. So great a number of Corinthian pillars, with so little wall, or solid building, afford a most romantic variety of prospect.

They are said to occupy an extent of more than 2600 yards, concealing a multitude of edifices behind them. In this space, are sometimes found a palace, of which nothing remains but the courts and walls; sometimes a temple, whose peristyle is half thrown down; and now a portico, a gallery, or triumphal arch. Here stand groups of columns, whose symmetry is destroyed by the fall of many of them; there they may be seen, ranged in rows of such length, that, similar to rows of trees, they deceive the sight, and assume the appearance of continued walls. If, from this striking scene, the traveller casts his eyes upon the ground, another, almost as varied, presents itself: on all sides he beholds nothing but subverted shafts, some whole, others shattered to pieces, or dislocated in their joints; and, on which side soever he looks, the earth is strewed with vast stones, half buried, with broken entablatures, damaged capitals, mutilated freezes, disfigured reliefs, effaced sculptures, violated tombs, and altars defiled by dust.

We refer the reader to the plates of Mr. Wood, for a more particular explanation of these ruins, and to make him sensible of the degree of perfection, to which the arts had arrived in these remote ages. Architecture, more especially, lavished her ornaments, and displayed her magnificence in the temple of the sun, the tutelar deity of Palmyra. The square court which surrounded it, was six hundred and seventy-nine feet each way, and a double range of columns was continued all round the inside. In the middle of the vacant space, the temple presents another of forty-seven feet, by one hundred and twenty-four in depth. Around it runs a peristyle of one hundred and forty columns; and, what is very extraordinary, the gate faces the setting, and not the rising sun.

What artists esteem very singular is, that the front of this temple of the sun, resembles the gallery of the Louvre, built by Perrault, long before the existence of the drawings, which made us acquainted with it; the only difference is, that the columns of the Louvre are double, whereas those of Palmyra are detached.

Within the court of this same temple, the philosopher may contemplate a scene, he will esteem still more interesting. Amid these hallowed ruins of the magnificence of a powerful and polished people, are about thirty mud-walled huts, which contain as many peasant families, who exhibit every external sign of extreme poverty. So wretched are the present inhabitants of a place once so renowned and populous. These Arabs only cultivate a few olive-trees, and as much corn as is necessary for their subsistence. All their riches consist in some goats and sheep they feed in the desart. The English travellers, Wood and Dawkins, inform us, that these peasants are healthy and well-shaped; and the few distempers they are subject to, prove, that the air of Palmyra, merits the eulogium bestowed on it by Longinus, in his epistle to Porphyry. It seldom rains there, except at the equinoxes, which are accompanied by those hurricanes of sand, so dangerous in the desart. The complexion of these Arabs, is very swarthy, from the excessive heat; but this does not hinder the women from having beautiful features. They are veiled; but are not so scrupulous of shewing their faces, as the Eastern women generally are; they dye the end of their fingers red, their lips blue, and their eye-brows and eye-lashes black; and wear very large gold or brass rings in their ears and noses.

The travellers we have quoted, have made very judicious remarks on the age which produced so many monuments of industry and power, and the source of the immense riches they indicate, but too long to be inserted here; and we must again refer the curious reader to that work, to see in what manner they distinguish two sorts of ruins at Palmyra; one of which must be attributed to very remote ages; while the others, which are the magnificent monuments so often mentioned, are the work of more modern times. They demonstrate with great ingenuity, that Palmyra, situated three days journey from the Euphrates, was indebted for its wealth and splendor, to the advantage of its position on one of the great roads, by which the valuable commerce, that has at all times subsisted between Europe and India, was then carried on; they have proved, in short, that the Palmyrenes were at the height of their prosperity; when, become a barrier between the Romans and the Parthians, they were politic enough to maintain a neutrality in their disputes, and to render the luxury of those powerful empires, subservient to their own opulence.

Leaving these valuable ruins, and returning to the habitable world, says Volney, we first meet with Homs, the Emesus of the Greeks, situated on the Eastern bank of the Orontes: this place, which was formerly a strong and populous city, is, at present, only a large ruinous town, containing not more than two thousand inhabitants, partly Greeks, and partly Mahometans.

Two days journey below Homs, is Hama, celebrated in Syria for its water-works. The wheels are, in fact, the largest in this country, being thirty-two feet in diameter. Troughs are fastened to the circumference, and so disposed as to fall into the river; and, when they reach the vertex of the wheel, discharge the water into a reservoir, whence it is conveyed by conduits to the public and private baths. The town is situated in a narrow valley, on the banks of the Orontes, contains about four thousand inhabitants, and possesses some trade, from its situation on the road from Aleppo to Tripoli. Further down the Orontes, is Famia, formerly one of the most celebrated cities of Syria, under the name of Apamea. The soil of the neighbourhood, abounding in pasturage, fed no less than thirty thousand mares, three hundred stallions, and five hundred elephants; instead of which, the marches of Famia, at present, scarcely afford a few buffaloes and sheep.

This is by far the most considerable pachalie in Syria; the pacha, besides an unbounded authority, is conductor of the sacred caravan of Mecca, under the highly respected title of Emir Hadj. The Mahometans consider this office as so important, and entitled to such reverence, that the person of a pacha, who acquits himself well of it, becomes inviolable, even by the sultan: it is no longer permitted to sued his blood. But, the divan has invented a method of satisfying its vengeance on those protected by this privilege, without departing from the literal expression of the law, by ordering them to be pounded in a mortar, or smothered in a sack; of which, there have been various instances.

The tribute of the pacha to the sultan, is very trifling; five and forty purses, or between two and three thousand pounds; but then he is saddled with all the expences of the Hadj; these are estimated at between three and four hundred thousand pounds. They consist in provisions, and the hire of the camels for the pilgrims. Besides this, one thousand eight hundred purses must be paid to the Arab tribes, to secure a free passage. The pacha re-imburses himself, by the miri, or duty upon lands. Besides his other emoluments, the pacha is heir of all the pilgrims who die on the journey, and this is not the least of his perquisites; it being invariably observed, that those are the richest of the pilgrims. Besides all this, he has the profits he makes by lending money on interest, to merchants and farmers, and taking from them whatever he thinks proper, in the way of balse, or extortion.

The pachalie of Damascus, from its situation, is more than any other exposed to the incursions of the Bedouin Arabs; yet, it is remarked, to be the least ravaged of any in Syria. The reason assigned is, that instead of frequently changing the pachas, as is practised in the other governments, the Porte usually bestows this pachalie for life: in the present century it was held for fifty years, by a rich family of Damascus. Asad, the last of them, held it fifteen years; during which time, he did an infinite deal of good. His passion, like that of all men in office throughout Turkey, was to amass money, but he did not let it remain idle in his coffers; and, by a moderation unheard of in this country, required no more interest for it than six per cent. the usual interest being from twenty to forty. An anecdote is related of him, which will give an idea of his character. Being one day in want of money, the informers, by whom the pachas are constantly surrounded, advised him to levy a contribution on the Christians, and on the manufacturers of stuffs. "How much do you think they may produce," said Asad; "fifty or sixty purses," replied they. "But," answered he, "these people are by no means rich, how will they raise that sum?" "My Lord, they will sell their wives' jewels; and, besides, they are Christian dogs." "Ill shew you," replied the pacha, "that I am an abler extortioner than you!" The same day he sent an order to the musti, to wait upon him secretly, and at night. As soon as the musti arrived, Asad told him, "he was informed, he had long led a very irregular life in private; that he, though the head of the law, had indulged himself in drinking wine, and eating pork, contrary to the precepts of the most pure book; assuring him, at the same time, he was determined to inform against him, to the Musti of Stamboul, (Constantinople) but that he wished to give him timely notice, that he might not reproach him with perfidiousness. The musti, terrified at this menace, conjured him to desist; and, as such offers are an open and allowed traffic among the Turks, promised him a present of a thousand piastres. The pacha rejected the offer; the musti doubled and trebled the sum, till, at length, they strike a bargain for six thousand piastres, with a reciprocal engagement to observe a profound silence. The next day, Asad sends for the cadi, and addresses him in the same manner; tells him, he is informed of several flagrant abuses in his administration; and that he is no stranger to a certain affair, which may, perhaps, cost him his head. The cadi, confounded, implores his clemency, negociates like the musti; accommodated the matter for a like sum, and retires, congratulating himself that he has escaped even at that price. He proceeded in like manner with the wali; the aga of the Janissaries; and, after them, the wealthiest Turkish and Christian merchants. Each of these, charged with offences peculiar to their situations; and, above all, accused of intrigues, were anxious to purchase pardon by contributions. When the sum total was collected, the pacha, being again with his intimates, thus addressed them, "Have you heard it reported at Damascus, that Asad has been guilty of extortion?" No seignior. "By what means then have I found the two hundred purses I now shew you?" The informers began to exclaim in great admiration, and enquire what method he had employed. "I have fleeced the rams," replied he, "and skinned the lambs and the kids."

After fifteen years reign, the people of Damascus were deprived of this man, by intrigues, the history of which, is thus related: About the year 1755, one of the black eunuchs of the seraglio, making the pilgrimage of Mecca, took up his quarters with Asad; but, not contented with the simple hospitality with which he was entertained, he would not return by Damascus, but took the road to Gaza. Hosein, who was then governor of that town, took care to give him a sumptuous entertainment. The eunuch, on his return to Constantinople, did not forget the treatment he had received from his two hosts; and, to shew his gratitude and resentment, determined to ruin Asad, and raise Hosein to his dignity. His intrigues was so successful, that the following year, he obtained for him the pachalie of Damascus. Asad thus deposed, retired with his houshold into the desart, to avoid still greater disgrace. Hosein, conducted the caravan agreeable to the duty of his station; but, on his return, having quarrelled with the Arabs, concerning some payment they claimed, they attacked him, defeated the escort, and entirely plundered the caravan in 1757. On the news of this disaster, the whole empire was thrown into as much confusion, as could have been occasioned by the loss of the most important battle. The families of twenty thousand pilgrims, who had perished with thirst and hunger, or been slain by the Arabs; the relations of a multitude of women, who had been carried into slavery; the merchants interested in the plundered caravan, all demanded vengeance on the cowardice of the Emir Hadj, but he concealed himself so well, that it was impossible to surprise him; while he, from his retreat, acting in concert with the eunuch his protector, undertook to exculpate himself. The pachalie, however, remained vacant; Hosein, disgraced as he was, could not resume his government. The Porte, desiring to revenge the late affront, and provide for the safety of the pilgrims in future, made choice of a singular man, whose character and history deserves to be noticed. This man, named Abd-allah, was born near Bagdad, in an obscure station. Entering very young into the service of the pacha, he had passed the first years of his life in camps and war, and been present, as a common soldier, in all the campaigns of the Turks, against Kouli-khan; and the bravery and intelligence he displayed, raised him, step by step, even to the pacha of Bagdad. Advanced to this eminent post, he conducted himself with so much firmness and prudence, that he restored peace to the country, from both foreign and domestic wars. The simple and military life he continued to lead, requiring no great supplies of money, he amassed none; but the great officers of the seraglio of Constantinople, who derived no profits from his moderation, did not approve of this disinterestedness, and waited only for a pretext to remove him.

This they soon found. Abd-allah had kept back the sum of about four thousand pounds, arising from the estate of a merchant. Scarcely had the pacha received it, before it was demanded of him. In vain did he represent, that he had used it to pay some old arrears of the troops; in vain did he request time: the vizir only pressed him the more closely; and, on a second refusal, dispatched a black eunuch, secretly provided with a kat-sherif, to take off his head. The eunuch arriving at Bagdad, feigned himself a sick person, travelling for his health; and, as such, sent his respects to the pacha; observing the usual forms of politeness, and requesting permission to pay him a visit. Abd-allah, well acquainted with the practises of the divan, was distrustful of so much complaisance, and suspected some secret mischief. His treasurer, not less versed in such plots, and greatly attached to his person, confirmed him in these suspicions; and, in order to discover the truth, proposed to go and search the eunuch's baggage, while he and his retinue should be paying their visit to the pacha. Abd-allah approved the expedient; and, at the hour appointed, the treasurer repaired to the tent of the eunuch, and made so careful a search, that he found the kat-sherif concealed in the lapelles of a pelisse. Immediately, he flew to the pacha, and, sending for him into an adjoining room, told him what he had discovered. Abd-allah, furnished with the fatal writing, hid it in his bosom, and returned to the apartment; when, resuming with an air of the greatest indifference, his conversation with the eunuch: "The more I think of it," said he, "signior aga, the more I am astonished at your journey into this country; Bagdad is so far from Stamboul, we can boast so little of our air, that I can scarcely believe you have come hither for no other purpose, but the re-establishment of your health." "It is true," replied the aga; "I am also commissioned to demand of you, something on account of the four thousand pounds you received." "We will say nothing of that," answered the pacha; "but come," added he with an air of firmness, "confess that you have likewise orders to bring with you my head. Observe what I say, you know my character, and you know my word may be depended upon: I now assure you that, if you make an open declaration of the truth, you shall depart without the least injury." The eunuch now began a long defence, protesting that he came with no such black intentions. "By my head," said Abd-allah, confess the truth to me:" the eunuch still denied. "By your head," he still denied: "take care, by the head of the sultan;" he still persisted. "Be it so," says Abd-allah, "the matter is decided, thou hast pronounced thy doom;" and drawing forth the kat-sherif, Know you this paper? Thus you govern at Constantinople. Yes, you are a troop of villains, who sport with the lives of whoever happen to displease you; and shed, without remorse, the blood of the servants of the sultan. The visir must have heads, he shall have one; off with the head of that dog, and send it to Constantinople." The order was executed on the spot, and the eunuch's retinue dismissed, departed with their master's head.

After this decisive stroke, Abd-allah might have availed himself of his popularity to revolt; but he rather chose to retire among the Curds. Here the pardon of the sultan was sent him, and an order, appointing him pacha of Damascus. Wearied of his exile, and destitute of money, he accepted the commission, and set out with one hundred men, who followed his fortune. On his arrival at the frontiers of his new government, he learnt, that Asad was encamped in the neighbourhood; he had heard him spoken of as the greatest man in Syria, and was desirous of seeing him. He, therefore, disguised himself; and, accompanied only by six horsemen, repaired to his camp, and desired to speak with him. He was introduced, as is usual in their camps, without much ceremony; and, after the customary salutations, Asad enquired of him, whither he was going, and whence he came? Abd-allah answered, he was one of six or seven Curd horsemen, who were seeking employment; and hearing Satadji (Abd-allah's other name) was appointed to the pachalie of Damascus, were going to apply to him; but being informed on their way, that Asad was encamped in the neighbourhood, they had come to request of him provisions for themselves and their horses. With pleasure, replied Asad, but do you know Satadji? Yes. What sort of a man is he? Is he fond of money? No; Satadji cares very little for money, or pelisses, or shawls, or pearls, or women; he is fond of nothing but well-tempered arms, good horses, and war. He does justice, protects the widow and the orphan, reads the Koran, and lives on butter and milk. Is he old? said Asad. Fatigue has made him appear older than he is: he is covered with wounds; he has received a blow with a sabre, which has made him lame with his left leg; and another, which makes him lean his head on his right shoulder. In short, said he, hastily rising, he is, in shape and features, exactly my picture. At these words, Asad turned pale, and gave himself up for lost; but Abd-allah, sitting down again, said to him, brother, fear nothing; I am not sent by a troop of banditti; I come not to betray thee; on the contrary, if I can render thee any service, command me, for we are both held in the same estimation with our masters; they have recalled me, because they wish to chastise the Bedouins; when they have gratified their revenge on them, they will again lay plots to deprive me of my head. God is great; what he hath decreed will come to pass.

With these sentiments, Abd-allah repaired to Damascus; where he restored good order, put an end to the extortions of the soldiery, and conducted the caravan, sabre in hand, without paying a piastre to the Arabs. During his administration, which lasted two years, the country enjoyed the most perfect tranquillity. The inhabitants of Damascus still say, that under his government they slept in security with open doors. He himself, frequently disguised as one of the poorest of the people, saw every thing with his own eyes. The acts of justice he sometimes did, in consequence of his discoveries under these disguises, produced a salutary circumspection. Some instances are still told by the people with pleasure. It is said, for example, that being on his circuit at Jerusalem, he had prohibited his soldiers from either taking, or ordering any thing without paying. One day when he was going about in the disguise of a poor man, with a little plate of lentiles in his hand, a soldier, who had a faggot on his shoulders, would force him to carry it. After some resistance, he took it on his back, while the Delibashe following him, drove him on with imprecations. Another soldier, knowing the pacha, made a sign to his comrade, who instantly took to flight, and escaped through the cross streets. After proceeding a few paces, Abd-allah no longer hearing his man, turned round, and vexed at missing his aim, threw his burthen on the ground, saying, the rascally knavish dog! he has both robbed me of my hire, and carried off my plate of lentiles. The soldier did not long escape; a few days after, the pacha surprising him in the act of robbing a poor woman's garden, and ill treating her, ordered his head to be struck off on the spot.

As for himself, he was unable to ward off the destiny he had foreseen. He was poisoned by his nephew. This he discovered before he died; and sending for his murderer, Wretch that thou art, said he, the villains have seduced thee, thou hast poisoned me to profit by my spoils: it is in my power, before I die, to blast thy hopes, and punish thy ingratitude; but I know the Turks, they will be my avengers. In fact, Satadji had scarcely breathed his last, before a Capidji produced an order to strangle the nephew, which was executed.

Of the tyrannical disposition of Osman Darouich, his successor, the following is a striking instance. In the month of November, 1784, a village of Greek Christians near Damascus, which had paid the miri, was called upon to pay it a second time. The shaiks appealing to the register, refused to comply; but a night or two after, a party of soldiers attacked the village, and slew one and thirty persons. The wretched peasants in consternation, carried the heads to Damascus, and demanded justice of the pacha. After hearing their complaints, Osman told them, to leave the heads in the Greek church, while he made the necessary inquiries. Three days elapsed, and the heads putrifying the Christians wished to bury them; but to effect this, the pacha's permission was necessary, for which they were under the necessity of paying forty purses, or above two thousand pounds. With such tyranny and oppression in the officers of the Grand Signior, both at Constantinople, and in the different pachalies, who can but rejoice to see the downfall of the Turkish empire?

We shall, in our next chapter, take a view of the manners and customs of the different nations, as they may more properly be termed, who inhabit these several pachalies.

CHAP. X. Of the different Inhabitants of Syria.

SYRIA as well as Egypt, has undergone revolutions, which have confounded the different races of its inhabitants. Within two thousand years, we may reckon ten invasions, which have introduced into that country a succession of foreign nations, so that the people of Syria, must be considered as a mixture of inhabitants, and may be divided into three principal classes:

First, the posterity of the people conquered by the Arabs, that is, the Greeks of the lower empire.

Secondly, the posterity of the Arabian conquerors.

Thirdly, the present ruling people, the Ottoman Turks.

To these people, who are the cultivators, and settled inhabitants of Syria, must still be added, three other wandering tribes or pastors, viz. the Turcomen, the Curds, and the Bedouin Arabs.

Such are the different races dispersed over this country. In this enumeration, it is remarkable, that the ancient inhabitants have no remaining representative; their distinguishing character is lost and confounded in that of the Greeks, who, in fact, by a continued residence from the days of Alexander, have had sufficient time entirely to take place of the ancient people.

Syria has not, like Egypt, refused to adopt the foreign races. They all become equally naturalized to the country. The features and complexion are governed nearly by the same laws there, as in the South of Europe. There the inhabitants of the Southern plains, are more swarthy than those of the Northern; and these more so than the inhabitants of the mountains. In Lebanon, the complexion does not differ from that in the middle provinces of France. The women of Damascus and Tripoli, are greatly boasted for the fairness, and even regularity, of their features; but we must take this praise on trust, since the veil they perpetually wear, allows no person to make nice observations. In several districts, the women are less scrupulous without being less chaste. In Palestine, for example, the married women may be seen almost uncovered; but want and fatigue, have robbed the countenance of all its charms; their eyes alone, are almost every where beautiful; and the long drapery, which forms their general dress, permits the body freely to display its shape: it is sometimes without elegance, but its proportions, at least, are no ways injured. I do not recollect, says Volney, having seen in Syria, nor even in Egypt, two persons crooked or deformed. It is true, they are strangers to those tightlaced waists, which, though so much admired among us, are in no estimation in the East; and the young women, assisted by their mothers, very early study, even superstitious receipts, to acquire an embonpoint.

The Syrians are, in general, of a middling stature, and are, as in all warm countries, less corpulent than the inhabitants of the North. We find, however, in the cities, some individuals, whose corpulency proves, that the influence of diet, is able to counterbalance, in a certain degree, that of climate.

Syria has no disease peculiar to itself, but the pimple of Aleppo, which we have noticed in speaking of that city. Other disorders are, dysenteries and fevers, the consequence of the bad fruits which the people greedily devour. The small-pox is sometimes very fatal; but the general and most frequent illness is the cholic, the causes of which are very evident, when we consider that every one eats to excess of un ripe fruit, raw vegetables, honey, cheese, strong oil, sour milk, and ill-fermented bread. These are the usual food of all the inhabitants; and the acid juices they contain, produce crudities, nausea, and even vomitings of bile. Accordingly, the first prescription, in almost all disorders, is an emetic; which method of treatment is only known to the European physicians. Bleeding is neither necessary nor useful. In dangerous cases, cream of tartar and tamarinds, have the most certain success.

Among the different inhabitants of Syria we have mentioned, some are dispersed, indifferently, over every part of the country; others confine themselves to particular spots, which it will be necessary to determine.

The Greeks, the Turks, and the Arabian peasants, belong to the former class, with this difference, that the Turks reside only in the towns where they are in possession of the military employments, and the offices of the magistracy, and where they exercise the arts. The Arabs and Greeks inhabit the villages, and form the class of husbandmen in the country, and the inferior people in the towns. That part of the country which contains the most Greek villages, is the pachalie of Damascus.

The Turcomen, the Curds, and the Bedouins, have no fixed habitations, but keep perpetually wandering with their tents and herds, in limited districts, of which they look upon themselves as the proprietors. The Turcoman hordes, generally encamp on the plain of Antioch; the Curds, in the mountains between Alexandretta and the Euphrates; and the Arabs spread over the whole frontier of Syria, adjacent to their desarts.

The Turkmen, or Turcomen, are of those Tartar hordes, who, on the great revolutions of the empire of the Califs, emigrated from the Eastward of the Caspian sea, and spread themselves over the vast plains of America and Asia-Minor. Their language is the same with that of the Turks, and their mode of life nearly similar to that of the Bedouin Arabs. Each of their camps acknowledges a chief, whose power is not determined by fixed laws, but governed by custom and circumstances. It is rarely abused, because the society is compact, and the nature of their situation maintains sufficient equality among its members. Every man able to bear arms, is anxious to carry them, since on his individual force, depend both his personal safety, and the respect paid him by his companions. All their property consists in cattle, that is camels, buffaloes, goats, and especially sheep. They live on milk, butter, and meat, which are in great abundance among them; and the surplus of which they sell in the towns, and the neighbouring country. In return, they take arms, clothes, money, and corn. Their women spin wool and make carpets; the use of which is immemorial in these countries, and consequently indicates their manner of living to have been always the same. As for the men, their whole occupation consists in smoking, and looking after their flocks. Perpetually on horseback with their lances on their shoulders, their crooked sabres by their sides, and their pistols in their belts; they are expert horsemen, and indefatigable soldiers. They have frequent differences with the Turks, who dread them; but as they are divided among themselves, and form separate camps, they do not assume that superiority, which their combined forces would ensure them. The pachalies of Aleppo and Damascus, which are the only parts of Syria they frequent, may be computed to contain about thirty thousand wandering Turkmen. A great number of these tribes pass, in summer, into Armenia and Caramania, where they find grass in greater abundance, and return to their former quarters in winter.

The Turkmen are reputed Mussulmen, and generally bear the distinguishing mark, circumcision. But they trouble themselves very little about religion, and they have neither the ceremonies, nor the fanaticism of sedentary nations. To describe their manners accurately, it would be necessary to have lived among them. They have the reputation of not being robbers like the Arabs, though they are neither less generous, nor less hospitable; and, when we consider that they live in plenty, without being rich, and that they are inured to war, and hardened by fatigue and danger, we may presume, they are equally removed from the ignorance and servility of the peasants, and the selfishness and corruption of the inhabitants of towns.

The Curds are another national body; the divided tribes of which, are equally dispersed over the Lower Asia, and have extended themselves pretty considerably, especially within the last hundred years. These were the same Curds who are mentioned by Xenophon, under the denomination of Card-uchi, and who opposed the retreat of the ten thousand. This historian observes, that though shut in on all sides by the Persian empire, they had constantly braved the power of the Great king, and the arms of his Satraps. They have changed but little in their modern state, and though in appearance, tributaries to the Porte, pay very little respect to the orders of the Grand Signior, or his pachas. In their mountains, they are subject to a sort of foedal government; each village has its chief, and the whole nation is divided into different and independent factions. All their tribes united, are estimated to exceed one hundred and forty thousand tents, that is one hundred and forty thousand armed men. Like the Turkmen, these Curds are pastors and wanderers; but differ from them in some particular customs. The Turkmen give their daughters a marriage dower: the Curds receive a premium for theirs. The Turkmen pay no respect to nobility, the Curds honour it above every thing The Turkmen do not steal: the Curds are almost every where looked upon as plunderers; on which account, they are much dreaded in the neighbourhood of Aleppo and Antioch, where they fix their tents. In this pachalie, and in that of Damascus, their number exceeds twenty thousand. They are reputed Mahometans; but they never trouble themselves about religious rites, or opinions. Several of them worship Shaitan, or Satan, that is the genius who is the enemy of God.

Language is the principal indication of the consanguinity of nations. That of the Curds is divided into three dialects. It has neither the aspirations, nor the gutturals of the Arabic; nor does it resemble the Persian; so that it must be an original language. Now, if we consider the antiquity of the people who speak it; and that we know they are related to the Medes, Assyrians, Persians, and even the Parthians, we may be allowed to conjecture, that a knowledge of this tongue, might throw some light on the ancient history of these countries.

The third wandering people in Syria, are the Bedouin Arabs. In general, when speaking of the Arabs, we shall distinguish whether they are cultivators, or pastors; this difference in their mode of life, occasioning a great one in their manners and genius. In the former case, the social state in which they live resembles our own. In the second instance, their mode of existence is neither that of polished nations, nor of savages. Such are the Bedouins, or inhabitants of the vast desarts, which extend from the confines of Persia to Morocco. Though divided into independent communities, or tribes, they may still be considered as forming one nation. The resemblance of their language, is a manifest token of this relation. In general, the Bedouins are small, meagre, and tawny; more so, however, in the heart of the desart, than on the frontiers of the cultivated country. In general, they do not exceed five feet two inches. This difference of height can only be attributed to their food. It may likewise be affirmed, that the lower class of Bedouins, live in a state of habitual wretchedness and famine. It is an undoubted fact, that the quantity of food usually consumed by the greatest part of them, does not exceed six ounces a day. Six or seven dates soaked in melted butter, a little sweet milk or curds, serve a man a whole day; and he esteems himself happy when he can add a small quantity of coarse flour, or a little ball of rice. Meat is reserved for the greatest festivals; and they never kill a kid, but for a marriage or a funeral. A few wealthy and generous shaiks alone, can kill young camels, and eat baked rice with their victuals. In times of dearth, the vulgar, half famished, do not disdain the most wretched kinds of food; and eat locusts, rats, lizards, and serpents, broiled on briars.

We have already said, the Bedouin Arabs are divided into tribes; each of which appropriates itself a tract of land. If another tribe enters upon this territory, they are treated as enemies, and a skirmish commences. This combat is, however, decided by the first shock, and the vanquished take to flight. But the slaughter made in these engagements, frequently sows the seeds of hatred, which perpetuate these dissensions. It is an established law among them, that the blood of every man who is slain, must be avenged by that of his murderer. So nice are the Arabs on this point of honour, that if any one neglects to seek his retaliation, he is disgraced for ever. These animofities are transmitted, from father to children, and never cease, but by the extinction of one of the families, unless they agree to sacrifice the criminal, or purchase the blood for a stated price, in money, or flocks.

The government of these tribes is at once republican, aristocratical, and even despotic, without exactly corresponding with any of its forms. It is republican, as the people have a great influence in all affairs, and nothing can be transacted without the consent of a majority. It is aristocratical, because the families of the shaiks possess some of the prerogatives which every where accompany power; and lastly, it is despotic, because the principal shaik has an indefinite and almost absolute authority; which, when he happens to be a man of credit and influence, he may even abuse; but the state of these tribes confines even this abuse to very narrow limits; for, if a chief should commit an act of injustice, if, for example, he should kill an Arab, it would be almost impossible for him to escape punishment; the resentment of the injured party would pay no respect to his dignity, the law of retaliation would be put in force, and should he not pay the blood, he would be infallibly assassinated. If he harasses his subjects by severity, they abandon him, and go over to another tribe.

The principal shaik in every tribe, defrays the charges of all who arrive at, or leave the camp. He receives the visits of the allies, and of every person who has business with them. Adjoining to his tent is a large pavillion, for the reception of all strangers and passengers. In these pavillions, are held frequent assemblies of the shaiks, and principal men, to determine on encampments and removals, on peace and war; on the difference with the Turkish governors, and the villages; and the litigations and quarrels of individuals. To this crowd which enters successively, he must give coffee, bread baked on the ashes, rice, and sometimes roasted kid or camel; in a word, he must keep open table; and it is the more important to him to be generous, as this generosity is closely connected with matters of the greatest consequence. On the exercise of this, depends his credit and his power. The famished Arab, ranks the liberality which feeds him before every virtue. To provide for these expences, the shaik has nothing but his herds, a few spots of cultivated ground, the profits of his plunder, and the tribute he levies on the high roads; the total of which is very inconsiderable. We must not, therefore, when we speak of the Bedouins, affix to the word Prince and Lord, the ideas they usually convey: we should come nearer the truth, by comparing them to substantial farmers, in mountainous countries, whose simplicity they resemble in their dress, as well as in their domestic life and manners. A shaik, who has the command of five hundred horse, does not disdain to saddle and bridle his own, nor to give him barley and chopped straw. In his tent, his wife makes the coffee, kneads the dough, and superintends the dressing of the victuals. His daughters and kinswomen wash the linen, and go with pitchers on their heads, and veils over their faces, to draw water from the fountain. These manners agree precisely with the descriptions in Homer, and the history of Abraham in Genesis.

The simplicity, or perhaps more properly, the poverty of the lower class of the Bedouins, is proportionate to that of their chiefs. All the wealth of a family consists of moveables, of which the following is a pretty exact inventory. A few male and female camels, some goats and poultry; a mare, and her bridle and saddle; a tent, a lance sixteen feet long, a crooked sabre, a rusty musket, a pipe, a portable mill, a pot for cooking a leathern bucket, a small coffee-roaster, a mat, some clothes, a mantle of black wool, and a few glass, or silver rings, which the women wear upon their legs and arms. If none of these be wanting, their furniture is complete. But, what the poor man stands most in need of, and what he takes most pleasure in, is his mare; for this animal is his principal support. With his mare, the Bedouin makes his excursions against hostile tribes, or seeks plunder in the country, and on the highways. The mare is preferred to the horse, because she does not neigh, is more docile, and yields milk; which, on occasion, satisfies the thirst, and even the hunger of her master.

Thus, confined to the absolute necessities of life, the Arabs have as little industry as their wants are few; all their arts consist in weaving their clumsy tents, and making mats and butter. Their whole commerce only extends to exchanging camels, kids, stallions, and milk; for arms, clothing, a little rice, or corn, and money which they bury. They are totally ignorant of all science, and have not even any idea of astronomy, geometry, or medicine. They have not a single book, and nothing is so uncommon among the shaiks, as to know how to read. All their literature consists in reciting tales and histories, in the manner of the Arabian Nights Entertainments. They have a peculiar passion for such stories; and employ, in them, almost all their leisure. In the evening, they seat themselves on the ground, at the threshold of their tents, or under cover, if it be cold; and there, ranged in a circle round a little fire of dung, their pipes in their mouths, and their legs crossed, they sit awhile in silent meditation; till, on a sudden, one of them breaks forth with, Once upon a time—and continues to recite the adventures of some young shaik, and female Bedouin: he relates in what manner the youth got a secret glimpse of his mistress; and how he became desperately enamoured of her; he minutely describes the lovely fair, boasts her black eyes, as large and soft as those of the gazalle; her languid and empassioned looks, her arched eye-brows, resembling two bows of ebony; her waist strait, and supple as a lance; he forgets not her steps, light as those of the young filley; nor her eye-lashes blackened with kohl, nor her lips painted blue, nor her nails, tinged with the golden coloured henna, nor her breasts resembling two pomegranates, nor her words, sweet as honey. He recounts the sufferings of the young lover, so wasted with desire and passion, that his body no longer yields any shadow. The Bedouins have likewise their lovesongs, which have more sentiment and nature in them than those of the Turks.

The Arabs have often been reproached with a spirit of rapine, but, without wishing to defend it, we may observe, that one circumstance has not been sufficiently attended to; which is, that it only takes place towards reputed enemies, and is consequently founded on the acknowledged laws of all nations. Among themselves they are remarkable for a good faith, a disinterestedness, a generosity which would do honour to the most civilized people. What is there more noble, than that right of asylum so respected among all the tribes? A stranger, nay, even an enemy touches the tent of the Bedouin, and from this instant, his person becomes inviolable. It would be reckoned a disgraceful meanness, an indelible shame, to satisfy even a just vengeance at the expence of hospitality. Has the Bedouin consented to eat bread and salt with his guest? nothing in the world can induce him to betray him. The power of the Sultan himself, would not be able to force a refuge, from the protection of a tribe, but by its total extermination. The Bedouin, so rapacious without his camp, has no sooner set his foot within it, than he becomes liberal and generous. What little he possesses, he is ever ready to divide. He has even the delicacy not to wait till it is asked: when he takes his repast, he affects to seat himself at the door of his tent, in order to invite the passengers; his generosity is so sincere, that he does not look upon it as a merit, but merely as a duty. To observe the manner in which the Arabs conduct themselves towards each other, one would imagine that they possessed all their goods in common. Nevertheless, they are no strangers to property; but it has none of that selfishness, which the increase of the imaginary wants of luxury, has given it among polished nations.

With respect to religion, the Bedouins, from policy, preserve the appearance of Mahometanism; but so relaxed is their observance of its ceremonies, and so little fervor has their devotion, that they are generally considered as infidels who have neither law nor prophets. They even make no difficulty in saying, that the religion of Mahomet was not made for them; "for," add they, "how shall we make ablutions who have no water? How can we bestow alms who are not rich? Why should we fast in the Ramadan, since the whole year with us is one continual fast? and what necessity is there for us to make the pilgrimage to Mecca, if God be present every where?" In short, every man acts and thinks as he pleases, and the most perfect toleration is established among them.

Besides the Arabs of the above description, there are others who reside in the cities of Syria and Palestine, and who are more polished than the rest of their countrymen. Their manner of dressing and behaving in company, gives them a greater resemblance to the Turks. These people generally carry on their commercial affairs, with much uprightness and integrity, and submit to the government under which they live, without forgetting they are sprung from Ishmael, that the Arabs boasting they are descended from Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Agar. They, accordingly shew a wonderful affection for the inhabitants of the desart, whom they alone consider as descended from noble and illustrious blood. The greater part of those real Arabs, who are fixed in cities, do not suffer their beards to grow till they are advanced in years; but the other inhabitants of the desart, never cut theirs at all. They carry their respect for the beard so far, that to touch it when they swear, is as solemn an oath, as that of the ancient gods, when they swore by the river Styx. They take very great care to keep it clean; and it may be easily conceived, they consider it a great affront when any one pulls them by this venerable ornament.

Though the Bedouin Arabs are exceedingly poor, there are others who live under tents, in valleys adjoining to the cities, whose flocks are more abundant, and who are not that half starved race like the Bedouins, or those Arabs, who wander more upon the extremities, and the most desart part of this province.

These are the Arabs Mariti seems to have in view, when he says, they are of a middle stature, their complexion brown, and that they have always a grave and melancholy air. Misfortunes give them no pain, and they derive no pleasure from prosperity, because they receive with resignation both good and evil from the hand of God. Equally insensible to the cries of their children, and to the tears of their wives, their visages exhibit no kind of alteration whatever. They seldom laugh, and never weep: to do either, in their opinion, shews great weakness; and, on this account, they have very little esteem for a man who weeps or laughs too much. It is necessary, therefore, for the Europeans to affect great indifference when amongst them, and to imitate their serious and melancholy behaviour: with a little attention in this respect, their friendship and esteem may easily be had.

These people derive their subsistence from flocks, from hunting, and from what they acquire by plunder. The acknowledge no sovereigns, but the Emirs of their tribes, who are their natural princes, and to whom they pay obedience. They have also shaiks, who are persons of an advanced age, whom they often consult, and whose advice they follow. As there are no fixed judges among the Arabs, these shaiks supply the place, and from their determination there is no appeal.

Though polygamy is permitted to the Arabs, by the law of Mahomet, which they follow, it is rare to see them have more wives than one.

The pleasure of smoaking, so common even among the women, is also one of the amusements of the Arabs, who may be seen sitting from morning to night with their pipes in their mouths.

The dress of the Arabs, consists only of a white robe bound round with a broad leathern girdle, which may be straitened or slackened at pleasure, by means of strong buckles, or a large clasp, with a few smaller ones. Winter and summer, they wear a large cloak, striped black and white, and made of the hair of goats, or some other animal. In winter, they use it to secure themselves from the cold and rain, and in summer to screen them from the heat of the sun. They wear nothing on their heads but a kind of red cap, surrounded with a piece of cloth of the same colour, or intermixed sometimes with white, which forms all its ornaments. Their Emirs, or princes, dress in the same manner, except, that their cloaks are for the most part all black.

They wear slippers after the manner of the Turks; but they are generally in half boots, in order that they may be ready at all times to mount on horseback. Some Arabs who are employed in agriculture, instead of slippers, wear only two soles of leather fastened under the foot, at the toe and heel, and forming a kind of sandal. Their drawers are made of linen, and descend to the lower part of the leg.

These Arabs have no habitations, but tents; they generally stop in valleys, taking always the precaution to place some of their tents on a neighbouring hill, to prevent their being surprized by different tribes who are their enemies. Besides this, being on the watch, they are able to fall on travellers unexpectedly, whom they are contented to rob, without offering any personal insult, provided no obstinate resistance is made.

The riches of these Arabs consist in cattle, which supply them with flesh, milk, butter, and wool, the principal articles they have occasion for, as they despise luxury of every kind.

What they value most, is their fine horses, and especially those that are swift in running. They distinguish them into three races, and are very curious in preserving their genealogy. Those of the two first races, are of a moderate height, but exceedingly slender and swift; they never neigh, and eat only once in the four and twenty hours. In the evening, which is the time they are fed, a measure of barley is susspended from their necks in a bag. If they are fatigued, they do not receive their allowance till an hour later: but they are suffered to drink almost every moment; even when covered with dust, and in the midst of their labour. When they arrive at their tents, they are unbridled, and tied to a lance fixed in the ground, by means of a rope which passes round their necks. If it be a mare, she is tied by the foot; but the saddles are never taken from their backs, except when they are combed. The Arabs have a greater number of mares than of horses, because they are better able to endure fatigue, hunger, and thirst; and because they require much less care.

About the time when the horses cover, they suffer them to feed in the open fields for the space of fifteen days, after which they carry witnesses with them, to certify what breed the horse is. They do the same thing at the birth of the foal; and mark upon a card, the month, day, and hour, together with the origin of the animal, and the colour of its hair. This card, called cogget, and containing different attestations, is put into a small brass ball, and suspended by a string from the colt's neck, where it remains during the whole time of its life: in short, that happy day is celebrated by a festival they give to their friends. The Arabs wait till their horses have attained the age of three years, before they put a bit into their mouths; and suffer the fourth year to elapse before they mount them. In this interval, they exercise them continually as we do in Europe, by making them run round in a circle. At the end of four years, they are shod and prepared for a particular kind of coursing, which consists in setting off on full gallop, stopping short suddenly, turning to the right and left, and retreating when the rider discharges his lance. It is customary for the Arabs to attack their enemies with great impetuosity, and then to fly back with the like speed. They, therefore, instruct their horses to stoop a little, by leaning towards one side, to enable the rider to recover his arms, without being obliged to dismount. Whilst they are accustoming them to these different manoeuvres, they never make use of the whip, but employ spurs, with the points of which they prick the sides of the horse, according as they judge it necessary. At the end of five years, they cut their tails, in order that they may grow afterwards, according to their natural disposition. They keep their hoofs very short, but make them advance a little beyond the shoe, which is formed of a piece of very thin iron.

Arabian horses increase in strength, in proportion as they are exercised in running, and it is very easy when they are stopped, to make them pursue such a pace as one wishes. When galloping, they carry their heads high, but suffer them to droop a little on an ordinary trot. If the rider should throw the bridle loose upon their necks, they would make no motion; and he might continue his journey in perfect safety, without taking it again into his hand. If he be dismounted by any accident, the horse will not advance a step further, but immediately stops till he gets up. The Arabs, properly speaking, do not make use of a bridle, but of a halter; and, in order to remain firm in their seats, because their saddles are high, they press their legs strongly against the horse's sides. Their manner of sitting on horseback is perfectly careless; and, in this respect, they do not display that gracefulness by which the Turks are distinguished. They are, however, far from being bad horsemen; when they wish to make their horses gallop, they bend their bodies a little, and lean forwards, which is a sufficient signal for the animal to set out full speed.

When they mount their horses, they are almost always armed with lances, twelve or fourteen feet in length, which they handle with great dexterity; but they have a smaller kind for darting against the enemy, as they retain the former always in their hands. They carry muskets likewise, but they are much terrified when they engage with fire-arms, being so little accustomed to them; and, after the first discharge, they become absolutely useless.

The features of the Arab women are remarkably beautiful, when young; but they soon become disfigured, by certain black spots like patches, which they make in their faces with a sharp-pointed iron. They mark with the same colour their lips and eyelashes, by mixing, with the paint employed for that purpose, a certain substance which they call coliastri. According to the general custom of the Levant, they dye their nails, and the palms of their hands, yellow.

Young girls make an opening near one of the nostrils, into which they put a clove: this appears to them to be a peculiar beauty, which they consider as a sign of virginity; though they continue to wear it even after they have had children. There are some, who, instead of a clove, thrust through their nostrils a silver ring, about an inch and an half in diameter; from the bottom of which is suspended a piece of coral, or some small coin.

One difference is remarked, between the Arab men and women; which is, that the latter, much less serious when young, become peevish and melancholy with age: whilst the men acquire with years, an opener and freer air. This difference, indeed, may be remarked among the people of every nation whatever: a desire of pleasing, and of being loved, is the first sentiment that arises in the mind of a woman; and it grows and increases as she approaches towards maturity; but, as love accompanies beauty only, and as beauty disappears with youth, it is not astonishing that a woman should become morose as she advances in life. Having lost the power of charming, she is no longer followed; and this neglect she is by no means able to support. With men, the case is quite different, being formed for accomplishing great things, they seem to abandon their nature, when they suffer themselves to be overcome by love.

The Arab women wear only a plain robe, after the Turkish manner, and scarcely ever cover their heads. Their cloaks resemble those of the men, but there are only few who use drawers, according to the custom of the polished people of the East. They ornament their hair, with strings of small glass beads, of different colours; on their legs and arms they wear bracelets of the same, and have rings made of metal on their fingers.

The principal occupation of the Arab women, is to take care of the tents in which they lodge, to provide water, to prepare food, to milk their flocks, and to make butter and cheese. They likewise manufacture the cloth necessary for covering their tents.

As there are no longer any physicians among the Arabs, the care of the sick is committed entirely into the hands of women. Among other diseases, they cure the dropsy so perfectly, that the patient is never afterwards subject to it. They are acquainted with the virtues of herbs, and employ them with great success. The Arabs almost always use scarification in their cures, and especially for pains. On the least sensation, they apply a red hot iron to the part affected, and are freed from their complaint by this violent remedy. This is the reason why so many of the Arabs may be seen with scars on different parts of their bodies.

The Arabs make very little use of bread. Their usual food is roots, honey, milk, butter, mutton, and the flesh of their camels; and birds which they may catch alive; because it is an article of the Mahometan law, to kill those animals which they eat, and to extract their blood. They consume a great deal of rice, particularly in their pilau. For seasoning the greater part of their dishes, they employ sour and curdled milk, which they mix with leaven.

The Arabians have another kind of food, which appears to us still more singular. This food is the flesh of locusts, which they collect in the season, when they pass through their country; and having taken off their heads, put them into leather bags, with a certain quantity of salt. When they eat them, they cut them into slices as we do sausages.

Amongst the various beverages of the Arabs, water holds the first rank. They make such a continual use of coffee, that they can drink it like the Turks almost at every hour of the day; but in small quantities, and without sugar. They compose another kind of drink with roots, and the juice of the sugarcane, and of grapes mixed with water. They have also a third, made with an infusion of barley, which has a great resemblance with our barley.

Hospitality is so much honoured among all the Arabs, that, without regard to religion or country they will receive in their tent every traveller who applies to them, and take the same care of his servant and his horse. After making him sit down on a mat, commodiously spread on the ground, they present him with a pipe, and coffee; and every now and then ask him how he does. They then prepare something for him to eat, and offer him their dishes, with that simplicity which is so common among them; and announces by their countenances, the great happiness they experience in being able to do him any service. If he wishes to pass the night in their habitation, they arrange the same mat in the form of a bed; and place under one end of it his stone, or a saddle to serve him for a pillow. Should the traveller at his departure offer his host a piece of money, because he appears to be poor, it would be accepted with gratitude; but if he gave nothing, the Arab would testify no dissatisfaction whatever. It may not here be improper, to describe the manner of eating among the Arab lords, which is a little different from that of the Turks.

After the floor is covered with different pieces of tapestry, a long table, raised about three or four inches from the ground, and which is only two feet in breadth, is placed in the middle of the apartment, without a cloth spread over it, and without any ornament. Several dishes filled with pilau, or rice baked, without sauce, and a sheep roasted whole, with its belly stuffed, compose the first course.

If the number of persons at table should amount to thirty, a second sheep is added. This principal course is followed by several dishes, containing boiled greens and pulse, with meat seasoned in various ways; and then comes the last course, which consists of small basons of milk, rendered sour by means of leaven. In such repasts as these they never employ knives, forks, plates, towels, or glasses.

When the dishes are ranged in order, the guests, having washed their hands and pulled off their slippers, approach the table with their chief, who invokes the benediction of heaven on the festival. Each then sits down on the floor with his legs crossed, and a domestic spreads over their knees a long cloth, which serves the whole company. They then begin to eat without any further compliment.

The Europeans, accustomed to ceremony, and above all to cleanliness, would not find themselves. very comfortable at such tables. Their delicate stomachs would be apt to become squeamish, when they saw each guest put his hand into the dishes, touch all the ragouts with it, and, filling it with a mixture of flesh and pilau, form it into small balls, and then press the whole into his mouth.

With regard to their beverage, which is always water, it is supplied by the nearest domestic, and is drank from a cup made of baked earth, or a cocoanut, and scarcely ever from glasses.

They remain a very short time at table, and rise all together to thank God for their good appetite. After again washing their hands, they retire to another hall, where some fruits are prepared, which form part of the desert. In the use of these sweet things, they are very moderate, which are carried away almost as soon as they are served up. Coffee and pipes are brought in the last place, with which they regale themselves, sitting in a circle.

The remains of their table are placed before their attendants, and from them are carried to the inferior servants. But will the reader be able to guess for whom the scraps left by all these wretches are designed? Will it be believed in those countries of Europe, which make it their boast to pay the most flattering attention to the fair sex; where they are treated with all the respect due to queens; where, when the table is loaded with the most delicate viands, and the choicest dainties, nothing appears good but what is presented by their fair hands; and where the master himself will not venture to touch the smallest article without their permission—that, among these barbarous people, what has escaped the teeth of the filthiest slave, is carried to the women, and even to the mistress of the house? These women drink coffee, and smoke in the same manner as the men.

The Arabs we have now been describing, passed from the desarts of Arabia, to Syria and Palestine, in the sixth century; and since that period, they have still more or less preserved their footing in these countries. All the inhabitants of the coasts, or of the interior parts, who speak the Arabic language only, are comprehended under their name. They are not, however, all descendants of the first migration, properly speaking: they are a mixture of all nations and religions.

CHAP. X. Of the Druses, and Mutuales.

THE country of Castravent, a part of Mount Lebanon, is inhabited, in preference to any other spot, by the Druses. The religion of these people, is one of the most modern in the East, since it is not older than 1030. The principles of this religion, are almost entirely unknown: their sacred books presenting nothing but a series of errors and obscurities. Their religion, however, seems to be a mixture of Mahometanism, and Christianity. They pray indifferently in the Greek churches, and the Turkish mosques.

Their language is that of the Arabs, which is the only one familiar to the different people of Syria.

The Druses are a robust, well-made people, and of a noble aspect, for which they are in part indebted to their education.—They are accustomed from their infancy, to hardships and fatigue.

When mothers lay their children in the cradle, instead of putting their pillow under their head, as is customary among us, they put it under their reins, so that the head remains in a hanging position. Wrapping up the legs afterwards with bandages, they bring the two calves together, taking care to extend their toes outwards; and this gives them, when old, that majestic carriage by which they are distinguished.

In their disposition, they are naturally faithful and sincere. They are fond of the Europeans, to whom they perform every duty that humanity requires, and on every occasion protect and defend them, as far as lies in their power. As they have very great aversion to usury, they cannot endure the roguery of the Turks, or the avarice of the Hebrews.

The Druses have particular princes, called Emirs, who are seven in number; and who, in conjunction, all govern the same country. One of them has the title of Grand Emir, and possesses the supreme authority, being president of the council. The city of Bareith, is the capital where the Emirs reside. The wives of these princes also enjoy a share in the government, and continue to command after their husbands' death; but when they have children old enough to succeed their fathers, they resign into their hands the reins of administration.

Though the Druses are considered as independent on the Grand Signior, they pay annually a small tribute to the Ottoman court; and this is the only shadow of authority that the Porte still retains over these people, jealous of their independance.

Their dress consists of a very short tunic, which scarcely reaches to their knees, made of goats hair and wool, and striped with different colours. Over this they tie several bands of stuff, disposed in the form of rays, amongst which are some of gold and silver tissue. This kind of ornament, which they wear before and behind, terminates towards the reins: the sleeves of their tunic, reach no further than their elbow. Under this upper garment, they have a pretty long robe of Turkish cloth, the sleeves of which extend to the wrist: their drawers are of the same stuff, but much shorter and narrower than those worn in other parts of the Levant. They use white shirts, which, in general, are not cut after the Ottoman manner. The girdle with which they bind both these articles of dress close to the body, passes above the reins, and is composed of ten or twelve pieces of stuff or cloth; and they wrap up their heads in beautiful bands of several colours, which form their turbans. Their slippers also differ from those of other people in the East, and have some resemblance to our shoes, except, that the leather of which they are made is red,
DRUSES.

or yellow morocco; that they fasten the straps with thongs of the same, instead of buckles; and that the upper-leather rises a great way up the leg.

The form and colour of their clothes have such a conformity, that the Druses seem all to wear a military uniform: their princes, however, dress in a different manner, and in a great measure copy the Turks. The dress also of their priests, has no relation with that in common use; they are distinguished by black, brown, and sometimes white clothes; they carry no arms, and their turbans are white and exceedingly high.

One might almost say, that the arms of the Druses form a part of their dress; for they never lay them aside either in the time of peace, or of war. They consist of a pair of pistols, with a poniard, which they suspend from the fore part of their girdle; an axe, a large flat bottle filled with powder, a fuzee, and a cartouch box, which hangs behind, containing twenty-four rounds of shot. They have very few horses, because they would be of no use among their mountains, in which they keep themselves fortified.

The dress of their women, is much the same as that of the Turkish women, except that they wear on their heads a plate of silver, made in the form of a cone, and about a palm in breadth. Above it they fix a long veil, which descends half way down the body, and which seems to add to their beauty and grace. When they have occasion to go abroad, they cover their face with it.

A thin delicate figure, so much admired in Europe, is not held in the same estimation by the Druses. These rude people prefer those of a larger size; and, as the desire of pleasing is natural to all the women of the earth; whilst the European ladies endeavour, by vigorous abstinence, to render their persons genteel, the female Druses strive to acquire, by high living, that plump and jolly appearance, which amongst them constitutes beauty.

The Mutuales, are a people dispersed in great numbers all over Syria; and are named thus from Mutual, a celebrated captain, who destroyed the ancient religion of the Persians, in order to substitute Mahometanism in its stead. The Mutuales, therefore, are Mahometans, but schismatics.

They differ from the ancient believers in only one point, which is, the succession of the doctors. Whilst the latter called Sinnins, or Legietes, reckon as immediate successors of the prophet, Abubaker, Osman, and Omar; the Mutuales acknowledge none but Ali. This point was contested between both parties, by force of arms; and torrents of blood were shed in the dispute. Hussan and Hussein, brothers and successors of Ali, perished by the hands of the Sinnins; and Mutual, who inhabited their domains, adopted also their madness and prejudice. And such is the blindness of fanaticism, that the Mutuales think they perform an action agreeable to heaven, when they sacrifice a Sinnin.

These Sinnins are not the only persons whom the Mutuales consider as impure. All religions, without distinction, appear to them worthy of the same contempt. They must be extremely hungry before they can be induced to eat with a Christian.

Should an European, by chance put his lips to any of their cups, they immediately break it to pieces, by dashing it on the ground; and, if the vase be of metal, they plunge it several times into boiling water, invoking the name of God, and that of his prophet.

When they purchase any provisions in the Christian, or Mahometan markets, they dip them three or four times into the mud, for the purpose, as they say, of purifying them.

The Mutuales are above the middle stature; have robust constitutions, and are indefatigable in war. In dress and manners, they bear a great resemblance to the Arabs.

There is, perhaps, no country in the world, where the women are held in less consideration than among these people. A Mutuale priest leads his wife to a friend, as he would lead his horse; and, when in want of money, he lets her out for a month, or half a year. No disputes, respecting the children, ever result from this traffic; they must be maintained by the person who borrows the woman; because, the produce of a field belongs always to him who has sown it; and, if any altercation arises between the parties, they trust to the honesty of the woman to settle them. The Mutuales do not think they offend God by this conduct: when reproached for it, they reply, that every one has a right to dispose of his property as he pleases.

CHAP. XI. Palestine.

PALESTINE is bounded on the North by Saide, or Sidon; on the South, by the Dead Sea; on the West, by the Mediterranean; and on the East, by the river Jordan, and the Lake of Tiberias. In length it is about a hundred and seventy miles; but its breadth varies much, being in some places fifty-eight miles, and in others, only twenty-two.

It comprehends the ancient country of Canaan, conquered by Joshua, the conductor of the people of God, after the death of Moses. It was called also the Promised Land, because it had been promised by God, many centuries before, to Abraham, and his descendants.

After the return of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity, this country was divided into three parts; called Judaea, Samaria, and Galilee. Judaea is the most Southern part, and Galilee the most Northern; on which account, Samaria, called at present the Napulosa, remained in the middle, and was, as it were, the centre of all Palestine.

It is still considered to be divided into the same three parts. The capital of Judaea is Jerusalem; that of Galilee, the small city of Nazareth; and that of Samaria, the city of Napulosa.

Palestine, is known also by The Holy Land, because our Saviour was born and resided here, till the period when he ascended into Heaven. The scriptures describe this country as exceedingly fertile, and abounding with productions of every kind. In Deuteronomy, it is said, "For the Lord thy God bringeth thee into a good land, a land of brooks of water, of fountains, and depths that spring out of the valleys and hills." And in another place, to shew its richness and fertility, it is said to be, "A land flowing with milk and honey."

The great population of Palestine, is an evident proof of the fertility of its soil. In the time of David, there were eleven hundred thousand combatants in the kingdom of Israel; and four hundred and seventy thousand in the tribe of Judah alone. Some writers conclude, therefore, that its inhabitants, including women and children, might amount in all to eight millions of people.

The land of Canaan, contained a prodigious number of cities and villages, as may be seen in the fifteenth chapter of Joshua; where we are told, that a hundred and twelve walled cities fell to the lot of the tribe of Judah alone. Of all its ancient cities, however, a few only remain; the rest being either destroyed, or their names given to paltry villages, now almost in ruins.

The population of this country, is also greatly diminished; but, at present, no certain calculation can be given of it; as the number of its inhabitants continually varies, on account of the Bedouin Arabs, who always come here at certain periods.

If the country has lost its ancient splendor, by the destruction of its cities, and the decrease of its population, it still retains its natural advantages, being beautifully variegated with mountains, hills, and delightful plains.

Its climate is exceeding good. It seldom rains here; but this deficiency is supplied by most abundant dews. The cold is never excessive; and, if the summer heats are great, they are mitigated by a periodical breeze, which renders them supportable.

Palestine abounds with almost every thing that is useful or necessary for the life of man. It produces wheat, barley, pulse of all kinds, fruits, wine, and oil, in such plenty; that though a part only of the country is cultivated, great quantities of these articles are distributed in the neighbouring provinces of Syria, and even transported to Europe, particularly wheat, barley, and pulse.

With regard to domestic and wild animals, it produces various kinds, many of which are not known in Europe. Cotton grows here in great perfection, particularly in Samaria and Galilee. Among its productions, may be reckoned also silk, tobacco, drugs, and aromatic herbs.

The mountainous country towards Jerusalem, is more barren than any other part, but there is no reason to suppose it has always been in the same condition. The cause of its being at present neglected, is the want of population; the inhabitants having abandoned the mountains, and retired to the plains, where agriculture is attended with less labour, and where they find more conveniences for their cattle.

Even in Galilee and Samaria, there are many parts still uncultivated; but as they abound with grass, they afford pasture to the cattle, which form the whole riches of the Arabs.

This province, according to some writers, is a district independant of every pachalie. Sometimes it has governors of its own, who reside either at Gaza or Jerusalem; but at present, Jerusalem is subordinate to the Pacha of Damascus, who appoints a deputy called a Motsallam; and the rest of the province is divided into three apanages, viz. Yafa, Loudd, and Gaza. The former has been given to the Sultana mother, and the two latter to the Captain Pacha, as a recompence for past services. These three districts have, therefore, now separate governors. We shall first, however, treat of the ancient capital of the province, Jerusalem.

The approach to this city, says Volney, presents a striking example of the vicissitude of human affairs. When we behold its walls levelled, its ditches filled up, and all its buildings embarrassed with ruins; we scarcely can believe we view that celebrated metropolis, which formerly withstood the efforts of the most powerful empires. Still more are we astonished at its ancient greatness, when we consider its situation, amid a rugged soil, destitute of water, and surrounded by dry channels of torrents and steep heights. Remote from every great road, it seems neither to have been calculated for a considerable mart of commerce, nor the center of a great consumption. It overcame, however, every obstacle, and may be adduced as a proof what popular opinions may effect in the hands of an able legislature, or when favoured by happy circumstances. The same opinions still preserve to this city its feeble existence. The renown of its miracles perpetuated in the East, invites and retains a certain number of inhabitants within its walls. Mahometans, Christians, and Jews, without distinction of sects, all make it a point of honour to see, or to have seen, what they denominated the noble and holy city. To judge from the respect the inhabitants possess, for the sacred places it contains, we should be ready to imagine there is not in the world a more devout people; but this has not prevented them from acquiring, and well deserving, the reputation of the vilest people of Syria; not excepting even those of Damascus. Their number is supposed to amount to twelve or fourteen thousand.

This city is, at present, about three miles in circumference; its situation is different from what it was at the time of our Saviour. Mount Calvary, upon which is built the church of the Holy Sepulchre, stood formerly without the walls; being appropriated
THE HOLY SEPULCHRE.

to the execution of malefactors, and, of course, considered as a polluted spot; but since our Saviour's suffering upon this mount, it has been so reverenced, and resorted to by Christians, as to have drawn the city round about it; and is, at present, the center of Jerusalem. On the contrary, a great part of Mount Sion now stands without the walls.

The church of the Holy Sepulchre, is the most magnificent, and the only remarkable building in Jerusalem, and that which pilgrims chiefly come to visit. It is a large structure, with a round nave, having no light but what comes through the top, like the rotunda at Rome. The dome is covered on the outside with lead, and within with cedar-wood. The opening of the dome is closed with a net of wire, to prevent birds from flying into the church. In the middle of the nave, and directly under the opening of the dome, is the Holy Sepulchre, which is in a chapel, whose door is three feet high, and two broad. It is so small, that it will hold but three persons on their knees at a time. On the right-hand, at the entrance, is the place where the body of our Saviour was laid. The table he was laid on, is two feet and a half high, from the pavement; and is covered with white marble, as the pilgrims who came to visit the tomb, were continually carrying away small pieces of the stone.

This chapel is cut out of the rock; and there three holes in the roof, to let out the smoke of the lamps, which are forty-four in number, and always kept lighted. Before the gate of the sepulchre, is a silver lamp, so large, that two men cannot fathom it. The Turks have had a mind several times, to carry off this lamp, and send it to Mecca.

If any one be desirous to know how a person feels himself, the first time he kneels before the Sepulchre of our Lord, for my own part, says Le Brun, I can only answer, that I never felt myself so much affected in my life. A Monk, who visited the sacred tomb with me, and who had never before been at Jerusalem, was so agitated, and shed so many tears, on kneeling before the sepulchre of our Lord, that it was full two hours before he could be brought to himself again. I will not, from thence conclude, says the above writer, that this was indisputably the sepulchre of our Saviour. But as no serious person can approach this spot, without being prepossessed with such an idea, and meditating upon the sufferings of him who died for the sins of mankind, his soul must necessarily be very deeply affected. And though we live in an age, in which such numbers seem to glory in their infidelity, conceiving this to be a distinguishing characteristic from the vulgar, and the criterion of a fine genius; yet I am firmly of opinion, the most professed Atheist, with all his affected stupidity, could not forbear feeling the same emotions with myself upon such an occasion.

On Good-Friday, the passion of our Saviour is solemnized in this church. All the most material circumstances of this great event are then represented; such as nailing him to the cross, crowning him with thorns, and then taking the body down, and wrapping it in a sheet. The Monks have first a sermon, and then every one takes a lighted taper in his hand, with crucifixes, and other utensils to begin the procession. One of these crucifixes is as big as life, exceedingly well done, and is crowned with thorns, and besmeared with blood. They visit first the pillar of flagellation; next the prison; afterwards the altar of the division of Christ's garments; then they advance to the chapel of derision, and from thence to Mount Calvary, leaving their shoes at the bottom of the stairs. Here are two altars; one where our Saviour was supposed to be nailed on the cross, and another where it was erected, and where they set up the crucified image. Near this spot, is the memorable cleft in the rock, which was said to have been made by an earthquake, when our Saviour suffered.

There are seven gates to this city; one of which, called the Golden gate, has been long blocked up by the Turks; from a prediction, that the Christians will again enter Jerusalem by this gate, and get possession of the city. The Turks use still farther precaution, in shutting every Friday, during their time of prayer, all the other gates; it having been further predicted, that the Christians would enter Jerusalem on the Turkish sabbath, and during the time of service.

A great number of Jews repair to this city, as they grow old, in order to end their days here, and be interred in the valley of Jehosaphat. It being a received notion among them, that those who are buried in this vale, will appear first at the great day of judgment, which they suppose will take place on this spot.

As for the mosque in this city, which the Turks affirm to have been the temple of Solomon, no Christian is permitted to enter it; so very rigid are they in this respect, that should any Christian be even seen in the court that surrounds the mosque, he must either turn Mahometan, or be burnt alive.

When the pilgrims arrive near the gates of Jerusalem, the fathers of the Latin convent send their interpreter, to invite them to their cloysters, where they are handsomely entertained, their feet washed, and an apartment assigned them; after which they give each pilgrim a wax torch, and go in procession round the cloisters, singing Te Deum, for their safe arrival in the Holy city.

Every pilgrim pays the governor an entrance fee of ten piastres; he likewise collects a considerable revenue from the exportation of certain singular articles from Jerusalem, such as beads, relics, sanctuaries, crosses, passions, agnus dei's, scapularies, &c. of which near three hundred chests are sent off annually. The fabrication of these utensils of piety, procures subsistence for the greatest part of the Christian and Mahometan families of Jerusalem, and its neighbourhood; men, women, and children are employed in carving, and turning wood and coral, and in embroidering in silk, with pearls, and gold and silver thread. The convent of the Holy-land alone, lays out annually, to the amount of fifty thousand piastres in these wares; and those of the Greeks, Armenians, and Copts, taken together, pay a still larger sum. This sort of commerce is the more profitable to the manufacturers, is their goods cost them little, and their price is enhanced by superstition. These commodities exported to Greece, Italy, and Portugal, and particularly to Spain, produce very considerable returns, either in the form of alms, or of payments. To this the convents join another not less important article of traffic, the visits of the pilgrims. There was a time when the ministers of religion taught, that it was indispensibly necessary to salvation; and this pious zeal pervading all Europe, gave rise to the Crusades. Since their unfortunate issue, the zeal of the European pilgrims has diminished, and is now reduced to a few Italian, Spanish, and German monks; but the case is different with the Orientals. Faithful to the spirit of past times, they continued to consider the journey to Jerusalem, as a work of the greatest merit. Their priests and monks, who find their advantage in this fervor, study to promote it. The Greeks especially, declare, that the pilgrimage confers plenary indulgence, not only for the past but for the future; and that it not only absolves from the neglect of fasting, and the non-observance of festivals, but even from the most heinous offences. Such great encouragements are not without effect; and every year, a crowd of pilgrims of both sexes, and all ages, set out from the Morea, Archipelago, Constantinople, Natolia, Armenia, Syria, and Egypt, the number of whom, in 1784, amounted to two thousand. The monks, who find by their register, that formerly ten or twelve thousand annually made this pilgrimage, never cease exclaiming, that religion rapidly decays, and that the zeal of the faithful is nearly extinguished. It must be confessed, however, that this zeal is rather expensive, since the most moderate pilgrimage never costs less than near two hundred pounds, and from that sum to between two and three thousand.

These pilgrims, as we have already observed, disembark at Yafa. They arrive in November, and repair without delay to Jerusalem, where they remain until after the festival of Easter. They are lodged confusedly, by whole families, in the cells of the convents of their respective communions. On Palm-Sunday, they go to purify themselves in the Jordan. The reader must consult particular relations of this pilgrimage, to form an idea of the tumultuous march of this fanatic multitude into the plain of Jericho; the indecent and superstitious zeal with which they throw themselves, men, women, and children, naked into the Jordan; the fatigue they undergo before they reach the borders of the Dead Sea; the melancholy inspired by the sight of the gloomy rocks of that country, the most savage in nature; their return and visitation of the holy places; and the ceremony of the new fire, which descends from heaven on the holy Saturday, brought by an angel. The Orientals still believe in this miracle, though the Franks acknowledge that the priests retire from the sacristy, and effect what is done by very natural means.

Easter over, each returns to his own country, proud of being able to rival the Mahometan in the title o• pilgrim; nay, many of them, in order to distinguish themselves as such, imprint on their hands, wrists, or arms, figures of the cross or sphere, with the cypher of Jesus and Mary. This painful, and sometimes dangerous operation, is performed with needles, and the perforations filled with gunpowder, or powder of antimony, and is never to be effaced. The Mahometans have the same practice, which is also to be found among the Indians, and other savages, (called at Otahcité Tattooing) as it was likewise among several ancient nations, with whom it had a connection with religion, which it still retains wherever it prevails. So much devotion does not, however, exempt these pilgrims from the proverbial censure thrown upon the Hadjis; since, the Christians say likewise, beware of the pilgrims of Jerusalem.

We may well suppose so great a multitude, residing at Jerusalem for five or six months, must leave behind them considerable sums; and reckoning only fifteen hundred persons, at one hundred pistoles each, we shall find they cannot expend less than between sixty and seventy thousand pounds. Part of this money is paid to the inhabitants and merchants for necessaries, and these omit no opportunity of imposing upon strangers. Water, in 1784, cost ten-pence a jug. Another part goes to the governor and his subalterns, and the remainder is the profit of the convents.

Of the places round Jerusalem, there are only two which merit attention. The first is Raha, the ancient Jericho; situated six leagues to the North-east of Jerusalem, in a plain six or seven leagues long, by three wide; around which are a number of barren mountains that render it extremely hot. Here, formerly, was cultivated the balm of Mecca. At present there is not a plant of it remaining; but another species is to be found at Raha, called Zakkown, celebrated also for healing wounds, and which the Arabs sell very dear: this is the sole commerce of Raha, which is no more than a ruinous village. It was on the summit of one of the mountains surrounding this plain, that the devil took our Saviour, when he shewed him all the kingdoms of the world.

The second is Bait-ell-ham, or Bethlehem, so celebrated in the history of Christianity. This village, situated two leagues South-east of Jerusalem, is seated on an eminence, in a country full of hills and vallies, and might be rendered very agreeable. The soil is the best in all these districts; but, as is the case every where else, cultivation is wanting. Near Bethlehem is a valley, where it is supposed the angels appeared to the shepherds, and proclaimed the birth of Christ. The fountains, pools, and gardens, which were said to have been the delight of Solomon, are also still remaining. They reckon, about six hundred men capable of bearing arms upon occasion.

In this neighbourhood are some soap manufactories, and a very ancient glass-house, the only one in Syria. They make there a great quantity of coloured rings, bracelets for the wrists and legs, and for the arms above the elbows; besides a variety of other trinkets which are sent even to Constantinople. The rings are often more than an inch in diameter; they are passed on the arms of children; and it often, happens, that the arm growing bigger than the ring, a ridge, of flesh is formed above and below, so that the ring is buried in a deep hollow, and cannot be got off, and this is considered as a beauty.

Gaza, which was the occasional residence of the pacha, and is now that of the Aga, is no more than a defenceless village, peopled at most by two thousand inhabitants. The situation of Gaza, by fitting it for the medium of communication between Syria and Egypt, has rendered it at all times a town of some importance. The ruins of white marble, sometimes found there, prove it was formerly the abode of luxury and opulence. The black soil of the surrounding country is extremely fertile; and the gardens, watered by the limpid streams, produce, without art, pomegranates, oranges, exquisite dates, and ranunculus roots, in great request even at Constantinople. It has, however, shared in the general destruction; and, notwithstanding its proud title of the capital of Palestine, says Volney, who includes Jerusalem, in the province of Syria, it is now a town of small account.

The manufacture of cottons, is the principal support of the inhabitants, who keep about five hundred looms employed. There are also two or three soap manufactories. The article of ashes, was formerly a considerable commerce. The Bedouins, who procured these ashes, by simply burning the plants of the desart, sold them at a reasonable price; but since the Aga has monopolized this commodity, the Arabs, compelled to part with it at his price, are no longer anxious to collect it; and the inhabitants, constrained to purchase at his pleasure, neglect making soap.

A branch of commerce, still more advantageous to the people of Gaza, is furnishing provisions for the caravans, which pass and re-pass between Syria and Egypt. They also purchase the plunder from the Bedouins, an article which would be of prodigious wealth to them, were these accidents more frequent. It is impossible to ascertain the profits they made by the plunder of the great caravan in 1757. Two thirds of upwards of twenty thousand camel loads, of which the caravan of pilgrims was composed, were brought to Gaza. The ignorant and famished Bedouins, who knew no value in the finest stuffs, but as they served to cover them, sold the fine Cachmire shawls, callicoes, muslins, Persian silks, coffee, and gums, for a few piastres. We may judge, from the following story, of the ignorance and simplicity of these inhabitants of the deserts. A Bedouin of Anaza, having found among the booty, several bags of fine pearls, took them for rice, and had them boiled to eat them; but seeing that they did not soften, was on the point of throwing them away, when an inhabitant of Gaza gave him in exchange for them, a red bonnet of Faz. A similar accident happened at the time of the pillage of the caravan in 1779; and in 1784, the caravan of Barbary, consisting of upwards of three thousand camels, was likewise pillaged, and the quantity of coffee dispersed by the Bedouins throughout Palestine was so great, as to cause the price of that article to fall suddenly to one half of what it was before; and it would have fallen still more, had not the governor prohibited the sale of it, in order to compel the Bedouins to deliver it all into his hands. A monopoly of this sort, in the affair of 1779, produced him more than eighty thousand piastres.

In the desarts of this province, are the two mountains Sinai and Horeb, so frequently mentioned in the scriptures. At the foot of the former, is a convent of Monks. The Greeks have so much faith in the relics of St. Catharine, which they say is deposited there, that they doubt of their salvation, if they have not visited them at least once in their lives. They repair thither even as far as from the Morea, and Constantinople. The rendezvous is at Cairo, where the Monks of Mount Sinai have correspondents, who treat with the Arabs for a convoy. The ordinary price is six pounds two shillings and sixpence each passenger, exclusive of provisions. On their arrival at the convent, the Greeks perform their devotions, visit the church, kiss the relics and images, mount on their knees more than one hundred steps of the hill of Moses; and conclude by making an offering, the value of which is not fixed, but rarely amounts to fifty pataques.

Except at these visitations, which take place once a year, this convent is the most desart and savage abode in nature. The adjacent country is nothing but a pile of rugged and naked rocks. Mount Sinai, at the foot of which it is seated, is a peak of granite, which seems to overwhelm it. The house is a sort of square prison, whose losty walls have only a window, which, though very high, serves likewise by way of door; for to enter this convent, the traveller must go into a basket, which the Monks leave suspended at the window, and occasionally hoist up with ropes. This precaution arises from their fear of the Arabs, who might force the convent, if the usual entrance was by a door: they never open the only one there is, except on a visit from the bishop; at all other times it is kept closely shut. This visitation should take place every two or three years; but as it necessarily occasions a considerable contribution from the Arabs, the Monks evade it. They do not, however, so easily escape the daily distribution of a certain quantity of provisions; and the quarrels which arise on this subject, frequently draw on them a shower of stones, and even musket-shot from the discontented Bedouins. They never stir into the country; they have by dint of labour, made a garden on the rocks, with earth they have brought thither, which serves them to walk in. They cultivate excellent fruit there, such as grapes, figs, and especially pears, of which they make presents; and which are highly esteemed at Cairo, no such fruit being there to be met with. Their domestic life is the same with that of the Greeks and Maronites of Lebanon; that is, it is entirely devoted to useful works, or to religious duties. But the Monks of Lebanon enjoy the inestimable advantage of liberty and security, which is not possessed by those of Sinai. In other respects, this confined and melancholy state of existence is, that of all the Monks in the country of the Turks. Every where their convents are prisons, with no other light than a window, by which they receive their victuals; and every where are they built in dismal places, destitute of whatever can give pleasure, and where nothing is to be found but rocks and stones, without either grass or moss, and yet they are full of Monks. There are fifty at Mount Sinai, five and twenty at Mar Saba, and upwards of three hundred in the two desarts of Egypt. I, one day, says Volney, enquired the reason of this, in a conversation with one of the superiors, and asked him, "What could induce men to engage in a mode of life so truly miserable?" "What," says he, "are not you a Christian?" Is not this the path which leads to heaven?—"But," replied I, "we may also receive salvation without renouncing the world; (and between ourselves, father), I do not perceive that the Monks, though they are pious, possess that ancient fervour, which, throughout life, kept its eyes fixed on the hour of death!" "It is true," said he, "we have no longer the austerity of the ancient Anchorites; and, in reality, this is one reason why our convents are so full. You, who come from a country where men live in security and abundance, may consider our life as an insupportable denial, and our retreat from the world as a sacrifice. But in the situation of this country, perhaps, the case is different. What can we do? Turn merchants! We should then be overwhelmed with the cares of business and our families; and after having worked hard for thirty years, comes the aga, the pacha, or the cadi; we are brought to trial without the shadow of a crime; witnesses are suborned to accuse us; we are bastinadoed, plundered, and turned into the world as naked as the first day we entered it. As for the peasant, his case is still worse; the aga oppresses him, the soldier pillages him, and the Arabs rob him. Shall we become soldiers? The profession is laborious and dangerous, and how it will end is not very certain. It may seem hard, perhaps, to shut ourselves up in a convent; but, at least, we live there in peace; and, though in a state of habitual abstinence and poverty, we perhaps possess and enjoy more than we should, if we had continued in the world. Observe the situation of the peasants, and look at ours. We possess every thing they have, and even what they have not; we are better clad, and better fed; we drink wine and coffee: and who are our Monks but the children of peasants?

I own I was astonished, says Volney, at so much frankness and just reasoning; but I felt more forcibly than ever, that the human heart is moved by the same springs in every situation. The desire of happiness is every where the motive, whether sought in hope, or in actual enjoyment; and it always expects to gain most in the part which it adopts; The discourse of this Monk, may suggest how far the spirit of retirement is connected with the state of any government; from what causes it originates, is predominant, and declines.

JOPPA and a TURKISH BOAT.

Yafa, the ancient Joppa, situated in this province where the pilgrims disembark. As a sea-port and a place of strength, Yafa is nothing; but it is capable of becoming one of the most important on the coast, on account of two springs of fresh water which are within its walls, on the sea shore. It is held by another aga, who pays for it one hundred and twenty purses to the Sultana. For this he receives the whole miri, and poll-tax of the town, with some adjacent villages; but the chief part of his revenue arises from the custom-house, as he receives all the duties on imports and exports. These are pretty considerable, as it is at Yafa that the rice of Damietta is landed for Jerusalem, and the merchandize of a small French factory at Ramla. It is the port likewise, for the pilgrims of the Morea and Constantinople; each of whom pay him fourteen crowns on his landing, and the same sum when he returns. The convent in this city, is said to be built on the spot, where stood the house of Simon the tanner, mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles. It was there where St. Peter lodged, when he raised Tabitha from the dead; and where he saw a vessel let down from heaven, that was full of unclean beasts. It was here likewise, that Jonah took shipping to fly from the presence of God, when he commanded him to preach repentance to the Ninevites. This place has also been rendered famous in the fables of antiquity; it being handed down to us, that here Andromeda was fastened to a rock, in order to be devoured by the sea-monsters, from which she was delivered by Perseus, who had fallen in love with her.

Three leagues to the East of Yafa, is the village of Loudd, where the other aga resides. A place lately ravaged by fire and sword, says Volney, would have precisely the appearance of this village. From the huts of the inhabitants, to the palace of the aga, is one continued heap of rubbish and ruins. The poor Christians who dwell here, shew with great veneration the ruins of the church of St. Peter, and make strangers sit on a column; which, as they say, that Saint once rested on. They point out the place where he preached, where he prayed, &c. The whole country is full of such traditions. It is impossible to stir a step without being shewn the traces of some apostle, some martyr, or some virgin; but what credit can be due to these traditions?

The manners and customs of the inhabitants of Palestine, differ little from those of Syria. The women in the villages, are not so strict in covering themselves with a veil when they go abroad, as they are in other parts of Asia. That simplicity of life which prevailed among the patriarchs, is a good deal more preserved amongst the country people in this province, than in Syria.

Whilst I was in one of the villages of this province, says Mariti, a young Arab woman, at whose wedding I had been present a day or two before, came to the well to draw water. She was accompanied by some other women, who were singing a song allusive to her marriage; and who, every now and then, sent forth certain tremulous sounds, which had no meaning, but were only expressions of joy.

At a distance, appeared several men, who every now and then discharged muskets and pistols, in compliment to the new married husband, who was on horseback; and who, instead of following his wife, proceeded with his company to a different quarter.

His wife, who was a beautiful young woman, was dressed in a robe with very long sleeves, which hung down to the ground; and which, as well as the rest of the robe, were striped with various lively colours. This was the distinguishing mark of a new married person. When she arrived at the well, she filled her vessel, after which the rest of the women did the same. This custom, of women going to draw water, for the use of their families, is often mentioned in the scriptures. We are told in Genesis, that when the servant of Abraham was going to Mesopotamia, to seek a wife for Isaac, he made his camels kneel down, without the city of Nahor, by a well, at the time of the evening, when the women went out to draw water.

The vessels which the women of Palestine use for drawing water, are a kind of narrow mouthed pitchers, with two handles, capable of containing between five and six quarts.

When the women go to a stream with these vessels, they fill them by dipping them into it; but, if they go to a well, which may happen to be deep, they carry with them a leathern bag, folded up under their arm, with which they draw up the water.

When they have filled their pitchers, they put them upon their head, placing a handkerchief, folded up in the form of a knot, below them; and, so dexterous are they in carrying these vessels, that some of them to shew their skill, hold them in an inclined position, and at the same time employ themselves in spinning, or lead their children along with them by the hand.

CHAP. XIII. A Review of the Present State of Syria and Egypt, with occasional Remarks on the Turkish Empire in general.
With respect to the Government.

THE Turkish government in Syria, says Savary, is pure military despotism. That is, the bulk of the inhabitants are subject to the caprices of a faction of armed men, who dispose of every thing according to their interest, or fancy. To form a proper conception of the spirit with which this faction governs, we must consider the title by which the Turks claim possession of the country.

When the Ottomans, under Sultan Selim, took Syria from the Mamlukes, they considered it as a possession acquired by the law of arms and war. Now, according to this law, among barbarous nations, the vanquished is wholly at the discretion of the victor, and becomes his slave; his life and property belong to his conqueror, who may dispose of every thing; and what he leaves his captive, he leaves him as a favour.

Such was the law among the Greeks and Romans, and among all those societies of robbers, whom we have honoured with the name of conquerors. Such, at all times, was that of the Tartars, from whom the Turks derive their origin. In the plains of Tartary, the hordes divided by interest, were no other than bands of robbers, armed for attack and defence; and, to seize as fair booty whatever they might covet. Now in an army, laws are but the orders of the chief; these orders are absolute, and suffer no delay; they must proceed from one will, and from a single head: hence, a supreme authority in him who commands, and a passive submission in him who obeys. But, in the transmission of these orders, as the instrument in his turn becomes an agent; the consequence of this is, that there is a spirit at once imperious and servile, which is precisely that of the Turkish conquerors, Proud after victory, the meanest of the Ottomans treated the most illustrious of the vanquished, with the lofty superiority of a master; and this spirit diffusing itself through every rank, we may judge of the distance, from whence the supreme chief looks down upon the crowd of slaves beneath him. These sentiments cannot be better pourtrayed, than in the formulary of the titles assumed in their public acts; "I, says the Sultan, in their treaties, who am, by the infinite grace of the great and omnipotent Creator, emperor of emperors; a refuge for sovereigns, distributor of crowns to the kings of the earth, servant of the two thrice-sacred cities Mecca and Medina, governor of the holy city of Jerusalem, master of Europe, Asia, and Africa; lord of the two seas, of Damascus, the odour of Paradise; of Bagdad, the seat of the califs; and of a multitude of countries, islands, straits, nations, generations, and of so many victorious armies, which repose beneath the shade of our Sublime Porte; I, in short, the shadow of God on earth, &c."

From such exalted grandeur, how must the Sultan look down on the rest of mankind? In what light must he view that earth he possesses, and distributes as a domain, of which he is the sovereign master? What must the people he has subdued appear, but slaves devoted to his service? This empire may be compared to a plantation in one of our sugar islands; where a multitude of slaves labour, to supply the luxury of one great proprietor, under the inspection of a few servants, who take good care of themselves. There is no difference, except that the dominions of the Sultan being too vast for a single administration, he is obliged to divide it into smaller plantations, and separate governments, administered after the same manner as the united empire. Such are the provinces under the government of the pachas. These provinces again being too extensive, the pachas have had recourse to further subdivisions; and hence, that series of subalterns, which step by step descends to the lowest employments. Thus power, being absolute and arbitrary, in the monarch, is transmitted absolute and arbitrary to all his sub-delegates. It is still the Sutan who dictates, and commands, under the varied names of Pacha, Moisallam, Kaiem-Ma•am, and Aga; nor is there one in this descending scale, even to the Delibashe, who does not represent, him. It is curious to hear, with what insolence the lowest of these soldiers, giving his orders in a village, pronounces: It is the will of the Sultan, it is the Sultan's pleasure.

In each government, the pacha being the image of the sultan, is like him, an absolute despot, The main object of so much authority is to collect the tribute. This duty fulfilled, says Savary, no other is required of him; the means, are at his discretion; and such is the nature of his situation, that he cannot be delicate in his choice of them; for the place he holds, depends on the favour of the Visir, or some other great officer; and this can be only obtained and secured, by bidding higher than his competitors. He must, therefore, raise money to pay the tribute, and indemnify himself for all he has paid, support his dignity, and make provision in case of accident. The established mode of collecting the miri (land-tax) and the customs, is to appoint one or more principal farmers, for the current year; who, in order to facilitate the collection, divide it into lesser farms, which are again subdivided, even to the smallest villages. The pacha lets these employments to the best bidder. The farmers, who, on their side, have no object in taking them but gain, strain every nerve to augment their receipt. Hence, those extortions to which they are the more easily inclined, as they are sure of being supported by authority. The consequence is, that the people being denied the fruit of their labour, restrain their industry to the supply of their necessary wants. Thus, the arbitrary power of the sultan, transmitted to the pacha and his sub-delegates, becomes the main spring of a tyranny, which circulates through every class; whilst its effects, by a reciprocal re-action, are every where fatal to agriculture, arts, commerce, population; in short, to every thing that constitutes the power of the state; or, which is the same thing, the power of the Sultan himself.

This arbitrary power of the pacha, occasions abuses likewise in the army. Perpetually urged by the want of money, he retrenches as far as possible, the usual military establishments. He diminishes the number of his troops; lessens their pay, winks at their disorders, and discipline no longer exists.

The emirs and pachas, all imitate the Sultan; all regard the country they govern, as their private property, and their subjects as their domestics; while they, in their turn, see in their superiors only tyrannical masters. It is a truth worthy of remark, that the greater part of the African and Asiatic States, especially since the days of Mahomet, have been governed on these principles; and that no part of the world has exhibited so many commotions and revolutions. May it not, therefore, be concluded, that arbitrary power is no less fatal to the military strength, than the finance of a nation.

The pacha, as being the image of the Sultan, is the head of all the police. He possesses the most absolute power of life and death; and this he exercises without any formality, or giving time for an appeal. When he meets with a criminal, he orders him to be seized; and the executioner, by whom he is attended, strangles him, or strikes off his head upon the spot; nay, sometimes the pacha himself does not disdain this office. The pachas frequently stroll about disguised, and woe to the man whom they surprise in a fault. As they cannot be present every where, they commit this duty to a deputy, called the Wali, who patroles night and day; keeps a watchful eye on the seditious; apprehends robbers; and, like the pacha, judges and condemns without appeal. This officer has a multitude of spies, who are most of them thieves; and by their means, he knows every thing that passes.

He likewise presides over the police of the markets; there he inspects their weights and measures; and, on this head, his punishment is severe. For any, the smallest deficiency in the weight of bread, meat, or confectionary, he will inflict five hundred strokes of the bastinado, and sometimes cause the offender to be put to death, Examples of such punishment are not unfrequent in the great cities, yet there is no country where false weights are more common; all the dealer has to do, is to keep a sharp look out for the passing of the wali. When they appear, the deficient weights are secreted. The dealers also bargain with the servants who precede him; and, for a certain sum, can insure impunity.

The office of the wali, by no means extends to those objects of utility, which are under the regulation of the police in European cities. No attention is paid either to cleanliness, or salubrity. The streets are never paved, swept, or watered, either in Syria, or Egypt. They are narrow and winding, and, in general, encumbered with rubbish. Travellers are above all, shocked with the sight of a multitude of hideous dogs, which have no owner. They form a sort of independent body, subsisting on public arms. They are quartered in districts; and should one of them happen to pass his limits, a combat ensues, which is extremely troublesome to passengers. The Turks do not kill these dogs, though they avoid touching them as unclean. They pretend, they ensure the safety of the cities by night; but this is more owing to the wali and the gates, with which every street is secured.

CHAP. XIV. Of the Administration of Justice.

THE administration of justice, in civil suits, is the only species of authority, which the sultans have withheld from the pachas. All the magistrates of the empire, depend on one principal chief, who resides at Constantinople. This grand cadi names the judges of the capital cities, such as Aleppo, Damascus, Jerusalem, &c. These judges again name others within their jurisdiction. But all these employments,
RUINS of BALBECK.

like those of the government, are fold to the best bidder, and farmed from year to year.

The tribunal whence these cadi's issue their decisions, is called the Mahkama, or place of judgment. In an empty mean apartment, the cadi is seated on a mat, or wretched carpet. On each side are his clerks and some domestics. The door is open to every one; the parties appear; and there, without interpreters, advocates, or attornies, each pleads his own cause. Squatted on the ground, they state the facts, discuss, reply, contest, and argue again in their turns. Sometimes the debates are violent; but the cries of the clerks, and the staff of the cadi, soon restore order and silence. Gravely smoking his pipe, and twisting the end of his beard, this judge listens, interrogates, and concludes by pronouncing a sentence, which, at most, allows but two months delay. The parties are seldom satisfied; they retire, however, with respect, and pay a fee, estimated at one-tenth of the property litigated, without murmuring at the decision, as it is invariably dictated by the infallible Alcoran.

It must be owned, this simplicity of justice, which does not consume the property in litigation, or compel the absence of the pleader from his place of residence, are two very great advantages; but, on the other hand, they are counter-balanced by abuses. Daily experience, says Volney, proves there is no country where justice is more corrupt than in Egypt and Syria, and no doubt in all the rest of the empire. The parties may bargain for their cause with the cadi, as they would for any common commodity. Corruption is habitual and general; and how should it be otherwise, where integrity may be ruinous, and injustice lucrative; and where each cadi, deciding without appeal, fears neither a reversion of his sentence, nor punishment for his partiality.

Such is the state of jurisprudence, throughout the Turkish empire. There exists no public and acknowledged code, where individuals may instruct themselves in their respective rights; the judgments being, in general, founded on unwritten customs, or the frequently contradictory decisions of the doctors.

CHAP. XV. Of the Influence of Religion.

IN vain do the Mahometans boast, that the koran contains the seeds, and even the perfection, of all political and legislative knowledge. Whoever reads this revered book, must be obliged to confess, that it contains nothing which constitutes a legislative code. The only laws we find in it, may be reduced to four or five ordinances, relative to polygamy, divorces, slavery, and the order of succession; and even these are so contradictory, that they are not to be reconciled. The rest is merely a chaos of unmeaning phrases, an emphatical declaration on the attributes of God; or a collection of puerile tales, and ridiculous fables, so flat and fastidious, that no man can read it to the end. Mahomet did not wish to enlighten men, but to rule over them; he sought not disciples, but subjects; and obedience, not reasoning, is required from them. All the legislators of antiquity, have, in vain, exhausted their genius, to explain the relations of man in society; Mahomet, more able, or more profound than they, resolves all into a few phrases. It is certain, that of all the men who have ever attempted to give laws to nations, none was ever so ignorant as Mahomet; nor was a composition produced to the world, so truly wretched as his book. Of this, the transactions of the last twelve hundred years in Asia, are a proof; the convulsions of the governments, and the ignorance of the people, in this quarter of the globe, having originated more or less in the koran, and its morality.

The koran, however, is not without its sublimity. I think the ideas conveyed by Mahomet's vision, such as deserve the notice of the world. This vision, seems to be a copy of St. Paul's trance; wherein he was, in a few hours, taken up into the third heaven, and shewn all the glories of the godhead. So boasted the impostor Mahomet. He pretended, that the angel Gabriel took him out of his bed one night, and carried him up in a cloud to the empyreum, and shewed him the seventeen heavens; and to increase the supposed miracle, he declared, that in his flight from his room, a small vessel of water was overthrown, and that the angel had returned him to his bed before all the water had run out. This story, I say, serves to give us some idea of Omnipotence, either in lengthening out a few moments of time to that age, required for such a passage,
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from earth to heaven; or giving such rapidity to his flight, that the time of his going and returning, was but a few moments. "A thousand years," says the Psalmist, "are in thy sight, O God, but as one day?—Seeing it is past as a watch in the night!"

The people of Syria, we have said, are, in general, Mahometans or Christians. This difference of worship, is productive of the most disagreeable effects in their civil state. Faithful to the spirit of the koran, the Turks treat the Christians with a severity, which displays itself in various forms. A Christian cannot strike a Mahometan, without risk of his life; but, if a Mahometan kills a Christian, he escapes for a stipulated price. Christians must not mount on horseback in the towns; they are prohibited the use of yellow slippers, white shawls, and every sort of green colour. Red for the feet, and blue for their dress, are the colours assigned them. When they travel, they are perpetually stopped at different places, to pay tolls, from which the Mussulmen are exempt: in judicial proceedings, the oath of two Christians is only reckoned for one; and such is the partiality of the cadi's, that they alone are subject to the capitation; the ticket of which bears these memorable words; Djazz elras, i. e. (redemption) from cutting off the head; a dear proof of the title by which they are governed.

These distinctions, so well calculated to ferment hatred and dissensions, are disseminated among the people. The meanest Mahometan will neither accept, from a Christian, nor return the salute of, "Health to you;" the usual salutation is only Good morning, or Good evening, and sometimes with Impious infidel, or dog. The Mahometans even affect to mortify them, by practising before them the ceremonies of their worship. At noon, at three o'clock, and at sun-set, as soon as the criers, from the tops of the minarets announce the time of prayer, they appear at the doors of their houses; where, after making their ablution, they gravely spread a mat or carpet, and turning themselves towards Mecca, cross their arms upon their breasts, stretch them towards their knees, and begin nine prostrations, down to the ground, reciting the preface to the koran. In conversation, they frequently make a breach, by their profession of faith, "There is but one God, and Mahomet is his prophet." They talk precipitately of their religion, and consider themselves as the only faithful of God. To confute them, the Christians in their turn, affect great devotion; and hence, that ostentation of piety, which forms one of the principal characteristics of the Orientals.

CHAP. XVI. State of the Peasants, and of Agriculture.

IN Syria, and even throughout the Turkish empire, the peasants, like the other inhabitants, are deemed slaves of the Sultan; but this term, only conveys the meaning of our word, subjects. Though master of their lives and properties, the Sultan does not sell them, nor does he limit them to a certain spot. If he bestows an appanage on some grandee, it is not said, as in Russia and Poland, that he gives him five hundred, or a thousand peasants; in a word, the peasants, though oppressed by the tyranny of the government, are not degraded by the servitude of foedality.

When Sultan Selim conquered Syria, in order to render the collection of the revenue more easy, he established a single territorial tribute, called the miri. This tribute, at the time it was fixed, was very trifling, it amounted to, scarce nothing. Sultan Selim, notwithstanding the ferocity of his character, seems to have understood the importance of favouring the husbandman. That this tax might be regularly collected, he gave orders to prepare a register, in which the contingent of each village should be set down. In short, this miri was fixed at an invariable rate, never to be augmented nor diminished. Not daring to violate the law established by the Sultan, respecting the immutability of the impost, the pachas have introduced a multitude of charges, which produces all the effects of an augmentation.

Thus, having the greatest part of the lands at their disposal, they clog their concessions with burdensome conditions, by exacting the half, and sometimes two-thirds of the crop; or by monopolizing the feed of the cattle, which the cultivators are under the necessity of purchasing from them at their own price. The harvest over, they cavil about losses, and pretended robberies; and, as they have the power in their hands, they carry off what they think proper. If the season fails, they still exact the same sum; and, to pay themselves, expose every thing the poor peasant has to sale. Happily, his person, at least, remains free; for the Turks are ignorant of the refinement of imprisoning, for debt, the man who has no longer any property.

To these constant oppressions are added a thousand accidental extortions. Sometimes the whole village is laid under contribution, for some real or imaginary offence; and sometimes a service of a new kind is introduced. A present is exacted on the accession of each governor; a contribution of grass is demanded for his horses, and barley and straw for his cavaliers; they must provide likewise, for all the soldiers, who pass or carry orders; and the governors take care to multiply these commissions, which are a saving to them, but inevitable ruin to the peasants. The villages tremble at every Lawend who appears; he is a real robber, under the name of a soldier; he enters as a conqueror, and commands like a monster: dogs, rabble; says he, bring me bread, coffee, tobacco; I must have; I must have meat. If he casts his eyes on any poultry, he kills them; and when he takes his departure, adding insult to tyranny, he demands what is called, the hire of his grinders. In vain do the peasants exclaim against this injustice; the sabre imposes silence. What is the consequence of all these depredations? The poorer class of inhabitants ruined, become a burthen to the village, or fly into the cities; but the miri is unalterable, and the sum to be levied, must be found somewhere; consequently, their portion falls on the remaining inhabitants, whose burthen, though at first light, now becomes insupportable.

The same method is adopted, with respect to the capitation of the Christians. Its amount having been estimated at the time they were first numbered, it must always produce the same, though those who pay should be less numerous. Hence, it happens, that this capitation is sometimes carried from three, five, and eleven piastres, at which it was first rated, to five and thirty, and forty; which absolutely impoverishes those on whom it is raised, and obliges them to leave the country. These burthens are, more especially, oppressive in those countries, bestowed as an appanage; and, likewise, in those exposed to the ravages of the Arabs.

In the former, the Titulary, greedy to augment his revenue, delegates full power to his lessee, to augment the taxes, who is well seconded by the avidity of his subalterns. These men, refining on the arts of wringing money from the people, have contrived to impose duties on every commodity brought to market on entries, on the conveyance of goods, and even on the burthen of an ass. With respect to the Bedouins, if they are at war, they pillage as enemies; if at peace, they devour every thing as guests: hence, the proverb, Avoid the Bedouin, whether friend or enemy. When the peasants are in want of money to purchase grain, cattle, &c. they can find none, but by mortgaging the whole, or part of their future crop, at a most exorbitant rate of interest, amounting sometimes to thirty and forty per cent.

From all these causes, the art of cultivation is in the most deplorable state; the husbandman is destitute of instruments, or has bad ones; his plough is frequently no more than the branch of a tree, cut below a bifurcation, and used without wheels. The ground is tilled by asses and cows, rarely by oxen, which would bespeak too much riches; beef is, therefore, very scarce in Syria and Egypt, besides being lean and bad, like all the meat of hot countries. In the districts exposed to the Arabs, as in Palestine, the countryman must sow with his musket in his hand. Scarcely does the corn turn yellow, before it is reaped and concealed in subterraneous caverns. As little as possible is kept for feed, because they sow no more than is barely necessary for subsistence; in short, their whole industry is confined to a supply of their immediate wants; and, to procure a little bread, a few onions, a wretched blue shirt, and a bit of woollen, much labour is not necessary.

CHAP. XVII. Of the Artisans, Traders, and Commerce.

THAT class of men, which give value to raw materials, by manufacturing them, is not so ill treated in Syria, as the class which produces them; the reason of which is, that the property of the artisans, and traders is more concealed from the scrutinizing eye of government, than that of the peasants. This is one of the principal causes of the populousness of the towns in Syria, and all over Turkey. While, in other countries, the cities are, in some measure, the overflow of the country; here they are the effect of its desertion. The peasants expelled from their villages, fly into them for refuge, and find there tranquillity, and even a degree of ease and plenty.

The pachas are particularly attentive to this last article, as on it depends their personal safety. They, therefore, take care to keep provisions cheap, in all the considerable towns, especially in that where they reside. In case of a failure in the harvest, they prohibit the exportation of grain, and oblige every person to sell it at a fixed price, under pain of death.

Commerce, in Syria, is still in that state of infancy, which characterises barbarous ages, and uncivilized countries. Along the whole coast, there is not a harbour capable of admitting a vessel of four hundred tons, nor are the roads secured by forts. In the interior parts of the country, there are neither great roads nor canals, nor even bridges over the greatest part of the rivers and torrents, however necessary they may be in winter. Between town and town, there are neither posts nor public conveyance. The only convenience of this kind, is the Tartar courier, who comes from Constantinople to Damascus, by way of Aleppo. This courier has no relays but in the large towns, which are at great distances from each other; but, in case of need, he may dismount the first horseman he meets. He leads with him, according to the custom of the Tartars, a second horse in hand, and has frequently a companion, for fear of accidents. The communication between one city and another, is kept up by carriers, who have no fixed time of departure. This arises from the absolute necessity of forming troops, or caravans, as no one travels alone, from the insecurity of the roads.

It is remarkable, that there are no waggons or carts to be seen in Syria. Every thing is carried on the backs of mules, asses, or camels; all which animals are excellent here. The two former are employed in the mountains; and nothing can equal their address, in climbing and sliding over the slopes of the craggy rocks. The camel is more used in the plains, because he consumes less, and carries more. His usual burthen, is about seven hundred and fifty pounds. His food is every thing his master chuses to give him; straw, brambles, pounded dates, beans, barley, &c. With a single pound of food, and as much water in a day, he will travel for weeks together. In the whole way from Cairo to Suez, which is a journey of forty, or forty-six hours, they neither eat nor drink; but these fastings repeated, exhaust them as well as other animals. Their breath then becomes foetid. Their ordinary pace is very slow, not exceeding two miles, or two miles and a quarter, an hour. It is needless to press them, they will go no quicker; but, by allowing them rest, they will travel fifteen or eighteen hours in a day.

There are no inns any where; but, as in other parts of Turkey, and likewise in Spain, the cities, and commonly the villages, have their khan, which serves as an asylum for travellers. These houses of reception, are always built without the precincts of the towns. The lodgings in them are cells, where nothing is to be found but bare walls, dust, and sometimes scorpions. A mat, and the key of the chamber, is all that the keeper of the khan furnishes. The traveller must, therefore, carry with him his bed, his kitchen utensils, and even his provisions. The baggage of a man, who wishes to be completely provided, consists in a carpet, a mattrass, a blanket, two saucepans, with lids, contained within each other; two dishes, two plates, and a coffee-pot; a small wooden box for salt and pepper; six coffee cups, without handles, in a leathern box; a round leathern table, which he suspends from the saddle of his horse; small leathern pouches, or bags for oil; melted butter, water, and, if a Christian, brandy; a pipe, a tinder-box, a cup of cocoa-nut, some rice, dried raisins, dates, Cyprus cheese; and, above all, coffee berries, with a roaster, and wooden mortar to pound them.

Our European merchants, not being contented with such simple accommodations, their journeys are very expensive and less frequent; but, the richest natives, make no difficulty of passing their lives travelling in this manner, between Bagdad, Bassora, Cairo, and Constantinople. Travelling is their education, and their science. To say of any man he is a merchant, is to pronounce him a traveller. They find in it, the advantage of purchasing their goods at the first hand, procuring them at a cheaper rate, ensuring their safety, by escorting them themselves; preventing many accidents, and obtaining some abatement of the numerous tolls. They learn, besides, to understand weights and measures; the extreme diversity of which, renders theirs a very complicated profession. Each town has its peculiar weight, which, under the same denomination, differs from that of another.

Coin is more fixed; a person may travel over the whole empire, from Choczim, on the borders of Russia, to Syene, adjoining to Nubia, without experiencing any change in its denomination or value. The most simple of their coins is the Para; called also, a Medin, a Fadda, a Kata, or a Mesria. It is the size of an English silver three-pence; and is worth something more than an halfpenny. After the para, follow successively, pieces of five, ten, and twenty paras; then the Zolate, or Islote, worth thirty paras. The piastre of the Lion, which is the coin most generally used in commerce, is worth about forty paras, or two shillings and a penny, English. Lastly, there is the piastre of the dog, which is sixty paras.

All these coins are silver, but with such a mixture of alloy, that the piastre of the dog is as large as an English crown, though intrinsically worth only three shillings and sixpence. They bear no image, because of the prohibition of the prophet, but only the cypher of the Sultan on one side, and on the other these words: Sultan of the two continents, Lord of the two seas, the Sultan, son of the Sultan—struck at Stamboul (Constantiple) or at Maor, Cairo; the only two cities in the Turkish empire, where there is a mint.

The gold coins are the sequin, called Dahab, or picca of gold, and sometimes Zahr-Mahaboub, or well-beloved flower. It is worth three piastres, or forty paras each. There is likewise a sequin, but very rare to be met with, called Fondoucli, worth one hundred and seventy paras. Besides these coins, which are those of the whole Turkish empire, some of the European specie are very current, such as the German dollars, and Venetian sequins. The Venetian sequins are in great request, from the fineness of their standard, and their being worn as trinkets by the women. Some of them wear two or three hundred, hung near the forehead, at the edge of the head-dress.

The effect of this luxury, is the withdrawing considerable sums from circulation, which remain dead; besides, when any of these pieces return into common use, it becomes necessary to weigh them. The practice of weighing money, is general in Syria, in Egypt, and all over Turkey. No piece, however effaced, is refused there; the merchant draws out his scales and weights, as in the days of Abraham, when he went to purchase his sepulchre.

Almost the whole commerce of Syria, is in the hands of the Franks, Greeks, and Armenians: formerly it was engrossed by the Jews. The Mahometans have little to do with it; not that they are prevented by the prejudices of their religion, or by indolence, as some writers have asserted, but by obstacles thrown in their way by their own government. The Porte, instead of giving a decided preference to Turkish subjects, finds it more lucrative to sell their rights and industry to foreigners. Some European states have, by treaties, obtained a diminution of custom-house duties, to three per cent. while the merchandize of the subjects of the Sultan, pays strictly ten, or when favoured, seven per cent. Besides this, when the duties are once paid in any port, the Frank is not liable to pay a second time in another. But the case is different with the Turkish subject. The Franks too, having found it convenient to employ Latin Christians, as agents, have procured them a participation of their privileges, and they are no longer subject to the power of the pachas, or amenable to Turkish justice. They cannot be plundered, and whoever has a commercial process with them, must plead before the European consul. With such disadvantages, it is not surprising the Mahometans should relinquish commerce to their rivals. These agents of the Franks, are known in the Levant, under the name of Baratary Drogmans; i. e. privileged interpreters. The Barat, or privilege, is a patent of which the Sultan makes a present to the ambassadors residing at the Porte. Formerly, these ambassadors made presents of them to particular persons in each factory; but, within the last twenty years, they have been made to understand it is more lucrative to sell them. The present price of them, is about two hundred and fifty pounds. Each ambassador has fifty given him, which are renewed on the death of the possessor, and form a very pretty perquisite.

France has the greatest trade to Syria, of any European nation. The factories, or as they are called, echelles, of the French, are seven in number. Aleppo, Scandaroon, Satakia, Tripoli, Saide, Acre, and Ramla. The sum of their imposts, amounts to about 250,000l. All this commerce passes through the single channel of Marseilles; and even the natives of Turkey are prohibited from carrying on their commerce, except through the medium of these factors. Considered relatively to the Turkish empire, it may be affirmed, this commerce is more detrimental than advantageous. For the articles exported, being all raw materials, the empire deprives itself of the advantages to be derived from the labour of its subjects. On the other hand, the commodities imported, being articles of pure luxury, only serve to increase the dissipation of the rich; whilst, perhaps, they aggravate the wretched condition of the people, and the class of cultivators.

CHAP. XVIII. Of the Arts, Sciences, and Ignorance of the People.

THE arts, and trades in Syria, afford matter for much consideration. In the first place, the religion of Mahomet having prohibited all kinds of images and figures, there, of course, exists neither painting, sculpture, or engraving, nor any of the numerous professions dependent on them. Secondly, a multitude of our trades are rendered unnecessary, from the small quantity of furniture used by the Orientals. The whole inventory of a wealthy family, consists in a carpet for the feet, in mats, cushions, matrasses, some small cotton cloths, copper and wooden platters for the table, a few stewing pans, a mortar, a portable mill, a little porcelain, and some plates of copper, tinned. All our apparatus of tapestry, and paper hangings, bedsteads, chairs, stools, glasses, desks, bureaus, closets; our beaufets, with their plate, and table services; all our cabinet and upholstery work, are luxuries totally unknown to them; so that nothing is so simple as a Turkish removal. Their cloathing is not more complicated, though more expensive. They are strangers to the hats, perukes, hair-dressing, buttons, buckles, stocks, laced ruffles, and all that superfluity with which we are surrounded. Cotton or silk shirts, which even the pachas do not count by dozens, and which have neither ruffles nor waistbands, nor plaited collars; an enormous pair of breeches, which serve also by way of stockings; a handkerchief on the head, another round the waist, with three large folds of cloth, compose the whole wardrobe of the Orientals. Their only articles of luxury are goldsmith's work, and which is confined to women's trinkets, saucers for coffee, wrought like lace, the ornaments of their harness, their pipes, which are very beautiful; and the silk stuffs of Aleppo and Damascus. In passing through the streets of the towns, we meet with nothing but beaters of cotton, on tenters, retailers of stuffs and mercery, barbers, tinners, locksmiths, sadlers, and especially sellers of little loaves, hardware, grain, dates, and sweetmeats.

In the villages, the inhabitants limited to mere necessaries, have no arts, but those, without which they cannot subsist; every one endeavours to supply his own wants, that he may not be obliged to share what he has with others. Each family manufactures the coarse cottons with which they are clothed. Every house has its portable mill, with which the women grind the barley, or dourra, for their subsistance. The flour from these mills is coarse; and their little round loaves ill leavened, and badly baked; but they preserve life, and that is all which is required. In the mountains, they do not preserve their vines, and they no where engraft trees; every thing, in short, reminds us of the simplicity of ancient times. When the reason of this want of industry is asked, the answer is uniformly the same. "It is good enough. It is sufficient: To what purpose would it be to do more?" They are right; since they would not be permitted to reap the benefit of their labours.

The state of the arts in these countries, is highly interesting, as preserving the discoveries in almost every respect of ancient times. For example, the stuffs of Aleppo are not an Arabian invention. The dyes they have, are properly those of Tyre. The manner by which the ancients secured the harness of their horses, against the stroke of the sabre, is, undoubtedly, the same now used at Aleppo and Damascus, for the head-stalls of their bridles. The small silver plates with which the leather is lined, hold together without nails, and are so jointed, that, without depriving the leather of its pliancy, there remains no interstice for the edge of the weapon.

The cement they make use of, is, no doubt, that of the Greeks and Romans. To make it properly, they only use the lime when boiling, and mix with it one-third of sand, and another of ashes and pounded brick-dust. With this composition they form wells, cisterns, and vaults, which the water cannot pass through. The use of this cement, has been lately introduced at Paris, but it is of great antiquity in the East.

We may affirm the same of the manner of working the iron mines in Lebanon, on account of its simplicity. It is the method now employed in the Pyrenees, and known under the name of the Catalonian forge. The furnace consists in a kind of chimney, formed in the side of a deep declivity. The funnel is filled with wood, which is set fire to. The bellows is applied to the inferior mouth, and the iron ore poured in from above; the metal falls to the bottom, and is taken out by the same mouth at which the fire is lighted. Even their ingenious wooden sliding locks, with which they barricade their streets, may be traced back to the time of Solomon, who mentions them in his song.

To their music, we must not ascribe so high an antiquity. It does not appear to have an earlier origin, than the age of califs; yet, as its principles were borrowed from the Greeks, it might afford matter of curious observation, to adepts in that science. Cairo is, perhaps, the only place in Syria, or in Egypt, where there are a few shaiks, who understand the principles of the art. They have collections of airs, which are not noted in our manner, but written in characters, all the names of which are Persian. They have no music but vocal; for they neither know nor esteem instrumental. They are strangers, likewise, to any other accompaniment than the unison, and the continued base of the monochord. Their airs, in point of character and execution, resemble nothing we have heard in Europe, except the seguidillas of the Spaniards. They have divisions more laboured, even than those of the Italians, and cadences, and inflexions of tones, impossible to be imitated by European throats. Their performance is accompanied with sighs and gestures, which paint the passions in a more lively manner, than we should venture to allow. To behold an Arab with his head inclined, his hand applied to his ear, his eye-brows knit, his eyes languishing; to hear his plaintive tones, his lengthened notes, his sighs and sobs, it is almost impossible to refrain from tears: and, indeed, they must certainly find a pleasure in shedding them, since among all their songs, they constantly prefer those which excite them most; as among all accomplishments, singing is, that which they most admire.

Dancing, which with us, says Volney, holds an equal rank with music, is far from being held in the same estimation with the Arabs. This art, among them, is branded with a kind of shame; a man cannot practise it without dishonour, and the exercise of it is only permitted to women. This judgment will appear to us severe, but it must be considered, that in the Eastern world, dancing is not an imitation of war, as among the Greeks, nor a combination of graceful attitudes and movements, as with us; but a licentious imitation of the utmost wantonness of love. This is the species of dance, which, brought from Carthage to Rome, announced the decline of her republican manners; and which since, revived in Spain by the Arabs, still subsists there, under the title of Fandango. Notwithstanding the freedom of our manners, it would be difficult, without wounding the ear, accurately to describe it; it will be sufficient to say, that the female dancer, with her arms extended, and an empassioned air, singing, and accompanying her song with castanets, which she holds between her fingers, executes, without changing her place, all those motions of the body, which passion itself carefully conceals under the veil of night. Such is their licentiousness, that none but prostitutes venture to dance in public.

The intimate connexion between the arts and sciences, leaves no room to doubt, that the latter are still more neglected. The barbarism of Syria and Egypt, is complete. In vain have some writers denied this assertion, and talked of colleges, places of education, and books. These words, in Turkey, convey not the same idea as with us. The age of the califs, is past among the Arabs, and yet to begin among the Turks. These two nations have, at present, neither geometricians, astronomers, musicians, nor physicians. Where should physicians be formed, since there are no establishments of the kind; and anatomy is repugnant to the prejudices of their religion? Astronomy, indeed, they practise; but, by astronomy, they understand only the decree of fate, by the motions of the stars, and not the profound science of calculating their revolutions. The Monks of Mar-Hanna, who are possessed of books, and maintain a correspondence with Rome, are not less ignorant than the rest. Never, says Volney, before my arrival, had they heard that the earth turned round the sun; and the zealots, finding it contradicted in the holy bible, were for treating me as a heretic.

In examining the causes of the general ignorance of the Orientals, we shall find the scarcity of books one of the principal. There are but two libraries in Syria, that of the Monks of Mar-Hanna, and that of Acre, both of which are very inconsiderable; one of them not exceeding three hundred volumes. The other is to be found in the form of government. Under the administration of the Turks, there is no prospect of obtaining rank or fortune, through the channels of the sciences. For this reason, the Orientals are ignorant from the same principle, that makes them poor. They may apply with justice to science, what they say of the arts, "What good purpose will it answer to do more?"

CHAP XIX. The Manners and Character of the Inhabitants of Syria.

OF all subjects of observation to a traveller, the moral character of the inhabitants of a country is certainly the most important. To succeed in such an enquiry, we must live in the country, learn the language, and adopt the customs of the inhabitants; conditions seldom complied with by travellers; and which when they are, still leave numerous difficulties to surmount; for we are not only to combat the prejudices we may meet with in our way, but to overcome our own.

When a European arrives in Syria, or in any part of the Eastern world, what appears most extraordinary to him, in the exterior of the inhabitants, is the almost total opposition of their manners to his own. The most striking contrasts may be seen between the people of Asia, and those of Europe. We wear short and close dresses; theirs are long and ample. We suffer our hair to grow, and shave the beard; they let their beard grow, and shave the head. With us, to uncover the head is a mark of respect; with them, a naked head is a sign of folly. We salute in an inclined posture; they in an upright one. We pass our lives erect; they almost always seated. They sit and eat on the ground; we on raised seats. With respect to language likewise; their manner of writing is contrary to ours; and most of our masculine nouns, are feminine with them.

Another distinguishing characteristic, is that religious exterior in the countenances, conversation, and gestures of the inhabitants of Turkey. In their streets every one appears with his string of beads. There is still another characteristic in the exterior of the Orientals, which attracts the attention of an observer; that is, their grave and phlegmatic air. Instead of the open and cheerful countenance, which we either naturally possess or assume, their behaviour is serious, austere, and melancholy: they rarely laugh, and the gaiety of the French appears to them a fit of delirium. When they speak, it is with deliberation, without gestures, and without passion; they listen without interruption; they are silent for whole days together, and by no means pique themselves on supporting conversation. If they walk, it is always leisurely and on business; they have no idea of our troublesome activity, and walking backward and forward for amusement. Continually seated, they pass whole days musing, with their legs crossed, their pipes in their mouths, and almost without changing their attitude.

As to the sedentary life of the natives, what motives has a man to bestir himself, in a country where the police has never thought either of laying out walks, or encouraging plantations; where there is no safety without the towns, nor pleasure within the precincts; where every thing, in short, invites us to stay at home?

The comparison of our civil and domestic state, with that of the Orientals, will furnish still further reasons for that phlegm, which constitutes their general character. One of the chief sources of gaiety with us, is the social intercourse of the table, and the use of wine. The Orientals, are almost strangers to this double enjoyment. Another source of enjoyment with Europeans, is the free intercourse between the two sexes, which prevailed more particularly in France. In Asia, on the contrary, women are rigorously excluded the society of men. Every body must be strangers to them; and they must be suffered to pass along the streets, as if there were something contagious in their nature. In fact, Mahomet, passionately fond as he was of women, has not done them the honour of treating them in his koran, as belonging to the human species; and it is even a sort of problem with the Mahometans, whether women have any souls. The government is still more unjust towards them; for it denies them the possession of any landed property, and so completely deprives them of every kind of personal liberty, as to leave them dependant all their lives on their male relations.

This situation of the women, among the Orientals, occasions a great contrast between their manners and ours. Such is their delicacy on this head, that, as we have observed before, they never speak of them. When we give them some account of European manners, it is impossible to express their astonishment. They are unable to conceive how our women go with their faces uncovered, when in their country, an uplifted veil, is the mark of a prostitute, or a signal for a love adventure. They have no idea how it is possible to see them, talk with them, or touch them without emotion; or be alone without proceeding to the last extremities.

What we are able to learn of the domestic life of husbands, who have several wives, is neither calculated to make their lot envied, nor to give a high idea of this part of Mahomet's legislation. Their house is a perpetual scene of tumult and contention. The four legal married women complain, that their slaves are preferred to them; and the slaves, that they are abandoned to the jealousy of their mistresses. If one wife obtains a trinket, a token of favour, or permission to go to the bath, all the others require the same, and league together in the common cause. To restore peace, the polygamist is obliged to assume the tone of a despot; and from that moment, he meets with nothing but the sentiments of slaves, the appearance of fondness, yet real hatred. In vain does each of these women protest she loves him more than the rest; in vain do they fly on entering his apartments to present him his pipe and slippers, to prepare his dinner' or to serve him with coffee; in vain, while he is effeminately stretched on his carpet, do they chace away the flies which incommode him; all these attentions and caresses, have no other object than to procure an addition to their trinkets, and moveables; that if he should repudiate them, they may be able to tempt another husband, or find resource in what becomes their only property. They are merely courtezans, who think of nothing but to strip their lover before he quits them; and this lover, long since deprived of desires, and teazed by feigned fondness, is far from enjoying an enviable situation. The contempt the Turks entertain for their women, arises from this concurrence of circumstances, and is evidently the effect of their own customs. How should women retain that exclusive love, which renders them most estimable, when so many share in the affections of their husbands? Or how should they possess that modesty which constitutes their greatest virtue, when the most shocking scenes of debauchery are daily practised before their eyes? How, in short, should they be endowed with the manners requisite to make them amiable, when no care whatever is taken of their education?

After what we have said of the manners of the Orientals, we shall be no longer surprised, that their whole character partakes of the monotony of their private life, and of the state of society in which they live. Even in the cities, where we see most activity, as at Aleppo, Damascus, and Cairo, all their amusements consist in going to the bath, or meeting together in coffee-houses, resembling ours only in name. There, in a large room, filled with smoak, seated on ragged mats, the wealthier class of people pass whole days in smoaking their pipes, talking of business in concise phrases, uttered at long intervals, and frequently in saying nothing.

Of all the different species of public exhibitions, the only one they know, and which is common at Cairo alone, is that of strollers, who shew feats of strength like our rope-dancers, and tricks of slight-of-hand like our jugglers. We there see some of them eating flints, others breathing flames; some cutting their arms, or perforating their noses, without receiving any hurt; and others devouring serpents. The people, from whom they carefully conceal the secrets of their art, entertain a sort of veneration for them, and call these extraordinary performances by a name, which signifies prodigy or miracle. This propensity of believing the most extraordinary feats or tales, is a remarkable feature in the character of the Orientals. They admit, without hesitation, or the least shadow of doubt, the most wonderful things that can be told them; and, if we regard the tales current among them, as many prodigies happen every day, as have been ascribed to the age of the Genii and fairies; the reason of which, no doubt is, that being ignorant of the ordinary course of physical and moral causes, they know not the limits between probability and impossibility. Besides having been accustomed, from their earliest youth, to believe the extravagant fables of the koran, they are entirely destitute of any standard of analogy, to distinguish truth from falshood. Their credulity, therefore, arises from ignorance, and the nature of their government. To this credulity, their extravagance of imagination, is, in a great measure, to be attributed; but, though deprived of this source, their works would still possess many brilliant ornaments.

In general, the Orientals are remarkable for a clear conception, an easy expression, a propriety of language in the things they are acquainted with, and a passionate and nervous stile. They have particularly a taste for moral sentences, and their proverbs shew they can unite justness of observation, and profundity of thought, with an ingenuity of force and expression.

Their conversation appears at first, to have a sort of coldness, but when we are more accustomed to it, we find ourselves greatly attached to them. Such is the good opinion with which those who have had most communication with them have been impressed, that the greater part of our travellers and merchants allow, that they find them a people of a more humane and generous character, and possessing more simplicity, and more refined and open manners, than even the inhabitants of European countries; as if the Asiatics, having been polished long before us, still preserved the traces of their early improvement.

CHAP. XX. Of the Religion and Funerals of the Ancient Egyptians.

RELIGION and man were born together. Before he was blessed with revelation, objects which astonished, from which he received the greatest benefits, or dreaded most, by turns attracted veneration. To rivers, seas, storms, and the sun, he addressed his prayers, and erected altars. The less he knew of the phenomena of nature, the more he believed in hidden powers. All nations have adored, under different names, invisible spirits, either praying for protection, or deprecating wrath. Men, enlightened by sublime philosophy only, can behold him who presides over the universe, or suppose a plurality of gods absurd.

Never were any people so superstitious as the Egyptians. They had a great number of gods of different orders and degrees. Among the rest, two were universally adored, Osiris, and Isis; which are supposed to have been symbolical of the sun and moon. Besides these deities, the Egyptians worshipped a great number of beasts, as the ox, the dog, the wolf, the hawk, the crocodile, the ibis, the cat, &c. Many of these beasts were the objects of superstition, only to some particular cities; and, whilst the people of one city worshipped one species of animals as gods, those of an adjoining one held them in abomination. This was the origin of the continual wars between different cities; and, is said to have taken its rise from the false policy of one of their sovereigns; who, in order to prevent conspiring against the state, devised this means of engaging them in religious contests.

It was death for any person to kill one of these animals wilfully; and a punishment was even decreed against him, who should have killed an ibis, or a cat, though unintentionally. As a proof of this, Diodorus Siculus relates an incident he was witness to, during his stay in Egypt. A Roman had inadvertently, and without design, killed a cat; the exasperated populace ran to his house, and neither the authority of the king, who sent his guard, nor the terror of the Roman name, could rescue the unfortunate criminal. Such was the reverence the Egyptians had for these animals, that, in an extreme famine, they chose rather to eat one another, than feed on their imaginary deities.

Of all these animals, the bull Apis was the most famous. Magnificent temples were erected to him; extraordinary honours were paid him while he lived; and still greater after his death. Egypt then went into a general mourning. His obsequies were solemnized with such a pomp, as is scarce credible. In the reign of Ptolemy Logus, the bull Apis dying of old age, the funeral pomp, besides the ordinary expences, amounted to twelve thousand pounds.

It is pretty evident, that the golden calf, set up by the Israelites near Mount Sinai, was owing to their abode in Egypt, and an imitation of the god Apis, as well as those which were afterwards set up by Jeroboam, (who had resided long in Egypt) in the two extremities of the kingdom of Israel.

The Egyptians, not satisfied with offering incense to animals, carried their folly to such excess, as to ascribe a divinity to the pulse and roots of their gardens. For this they have been ingeniously reproached by the Roman satyrist, in one of his inimitable satires. It is astonishing to see a nation, which boasted its superiority above all others, in wisdom and learning, abandon itself to the most gross and ridiculous superstition. Indeed, to read of animals and vile insects, honoured with religious worship, placed in temples, and maintained with great care, and at an extravagant expence; to read that those who killed them, were punished with death; and, that these animals were embalmed and solemnly deposited in tombs, assigned them by the public; to hear, in short, that this extravagance was carried to such lengths, that leeks and onions were acknowledged as deities, and depended upon for succour and protection, are excesses, which we at this distance of time can scarce credit; and yet they have the evidence of all antiquity. You enter, says Lucian, into a magnificent temple, every part of which glitters with gold and silver. You there look attentively for a god, and are cheated with a stork, an ape, or a cat; a just emblem, adds that writer, of too many palaces, the masters of which, are far from being the brightest ornaments of them.

Several reasons are assigned for the worship paid to animals by the Egyptians. The first is drawn from fabulous history. It is pretended, that the gods, when mankind rebelled against them, sled into Egypt, and concealed themselves under the forms of different animals; and that these gave rise to the worship afterwards paid to these animals.

The second is taken from the benefit these animals procure to mankind: oxen by their labour; sheep by their wool and milk; dogs by their service in hunting and guarding houses; whence the god Anubis was represented with a dog's head. The Ibis, a bird resembling a stork, was worshipped, because he put to flight the winged serpents, with which Egypt would otherwise have been grievously infected; the crocodile, an amphibious creature, of surprising strength and size, was worshipped, because he defended Egypt from the incursion of the wild Arabs; the ichneumon was adored, because he prevented the too great increase of the crocodiles, which might have proved destructive to Egypt. This little animal does this service to the country two ways. First, he watches the time when the crocodile is absent, and breaks his eggs, but does not eat them. Secondly, when the crocodile sleeps on the banks of the Nile, which he always does with his mouth open, this small animal lying concealed in the mud, leaps at once into his mouth, gets down his entrails and gnaws them, then piercing his belly, the skin of which is very tender he escapes in safety; and thus, by his address and subtilty, becomes victorious over so terrible an animal.

Philosophers, since the establishment of christianity, not satisfied with these reasons, have asserted, that the worship which the Egyptians paid to animals, was not offered to the animals themselves, but to the gods of whom they were the symbols. Plutarch, in his famous treatise on Isis and Osiris, the two most famous deities of the Egyptians, says, that philosophers honour the image of God, wherever they find it, even in inanimate beings, consequently much more in those which have life. We are, therefore, to approve not the worship of these animals, but those who, by their means, ascend to the deity; they are to be considered as so many mirrors which nature holds forth, and in which the Supreme Being displays himself in a wonderful manner. Should men, therefore, for the embellishment of statues, collect together all the gold and precious stones in the world, the worship must not be referred to the statues; for the deity does not visit in colours artfully disposed, nor in frail matter, destitute of sense and motion. Plutarch further adds, in the same treatise, that as the sun, moon, heaven, earth, and sea, are common to all men, but have different names, according to the difference of nations and languages; in like manner, though there is but one Deity or providence, which governs the universe, men give him different names, and pay him different honours, according to the laws and customs of their country.

The pyramids were erected as so many sacred monuments, destined to transmit in future times the memory of great princes: they were likewise considered as the mansions, where the body was to remain during a long succession of ages; different in this respect from houses which were called inns, and where men were to abide only as travellers, during the course of a life too short to engage their affections.

When any person of a family died, all the kindred and friends quitted their usual habits, and went into mourning. They refrained also from baths, wine, and luxuries of every kind. This mourning lasted forty or seventy days, according to the quality of the person.

Bodies were embalmed three ways. The most magnificent was bestowed on persons of rank, the expence of which amounted to a talent of silver, or about a hundred and twenty pounds.

Many hands were employed in this operation. Some drew the brain through the nostrils, by an instrument made for the purpose. Others emptied the bowels and intestines, by a hole cut in the side with an Egyptian stone, which was very sharp; after which, the cavities were filled up with perfumes, and various odoriferous drugs. As this evacuation (which was necessarily attended with some dissection) seemed cruel and inhuman, the persons employed in it, fled as soon as the operation was over, and were pursued with stones from the standers by. But those who embalmed the body were honourably treated. They filled it with myrrh, cinnamon, and all sorts of spices. After a certain time, the body was swathed in lawn fillets, glued together with a very thin gauze, and then crusted over with the most exquisite perfumes. By this means, the entire figure of the body, the lineaments of the face, and the hair on the lids and eyebrows were preserved in their natural perfections. The body thus embalmed, was delivered up to he relations, who put it in a kind of open chest, fitted exactly to the size, and placed it upright against the wall, either in sepulchres, if they had any, or in their houses. These embalmed bodies, are what are now called mummies, which are still brought from Egypt, and to be seen in the cabinets of the curious. This shews the care that the Egyptians took of their dead. Children, by seeing the bodies of their ancestors thus preserved, recalled to mind those virtues for which the public had honoured them.

It was a consolation among the heathens, to leave a good name behind them; and they imagined this the only human blessing, of which death could not deprive them. But the Egyptians would not suffer praises to be bestowed indiscriminately on all deceased persons. This honour was to be obtained only from the public voice. The assembly of the judges, met on the other side of the lake, which they crossed in a boat. He who sat at the helm, was called Charon, in the Egyptian language; and, this first gave the hint to Orpheus, who had been in Egypt, to invent the fiction of Charon's boat. As soon as a man was dead, he was brought to his trial. The public accuser was heard. If he proved, that the deceased had lived a bad life, his memory was condemned, and he was deprived of burial. The people were affected with laws, which extended beyond the grave; and every one struck with the disgrace inflicted on the dead person, was afraid to reflect dishonour on his own memory, and that of his family. But if the deceased was not convicted of any crime, he was interred in an honourable manner.

When, therefore, a favourable judgment was pronounced, the next thing was to proceed to the ceremony of interment. In his panegyric, no mention was made of his name, because every Egyptian was deemed noble. No praises were considered as just or true, but such as related to the personal merit of the deceased. He was applauded for having received an excellent education in his early years; and, in a more advanced age, for having exercised gentleness, moderation, and all other virtues, which constitute the good man. Then all the people shouted, and bestowed the highest eulogiums on the deceased, as one, who would be for ever received into the society of the virtuous, in the kingdom of Pluto.

MAP of EGYPT, with the Course of the RIVER NILE.

CHAP. I. A Description of Egypt, from Volney, Savary, Norden, and Tott.
Country, Climate, &c.

EGYPT is bounded on the North, by the Mediterranean; on the South, by a chain of mountains, separating it from Nubia; on the East, by the Red Sea, and the isthmus of Suez; and its Western limits are the desarts of Lybia; in the midst of which stood the temple of Jupiter Ammon. Its greatest length is about two hundred and twenty-five leagues, extending from Syene, which is situated under the tropic of Cancer, to Cape Buelos, which is the most projecting land of the Delta, and almost terminates the thirty-second degree of North latitude.

The broadest part is from Alexandria to Damietta; and from thence it grows gradually narrower and narrower, till it approaches Nubia, where it is enclosed between two chains of mountains, having the Nile and a plain between them, not above half a day's journey over.

It is divided into upper and lower; the former is a long valley beginning at Syene, and ending at Grand Cairo. Two ridges of mountains, taking their departure from the last cataract, form the lofty outlines of upper Egypt: their parallel direction is from North to South, till they reach Grand Cairo; where, separating to the right and left, the one stretches toward Mount Colzowm, and the other terminates in sand-banks near Alexandria. In this celebrated valley, man first sought and first beheld the light of science, whose radiance diffusing itself over Greece, has successively enlightened the rest of the world. This valley, though still as fruitful as in the happy days of Thebes, is much less cultivated; its famous cities are laid level with the dust; and laws and arts trodden under foot by ignorance and despotism.

Lower Egypt, includes all the country lying between Grand Cairo, the Mediterranean, the Isthmus of Suez, and Lybia. This immense plain, contains slips of land, well cultivated, on the borders of the canals; and in its centre, that triangular island to which the Greeks gave the name of Delta, formed by the two branches of the Nile, which divide at Batriel-Balkara (the cow's belly) and empty themselves into the sea; below Damietta and Rosetta. This island, the most fruitful on the earth, has lost much of its extent, since the time when Canopus and Pelusium were its limits. Most of the canals, which with their streams brought fertility, are dried up; and the earth ceasing to be watered, and continually exposed to the burning heats of the sun, is become a barren sand. Those that remain bear little resemblance to their ancient state, and no longer communicate with the lake Menzala, except a very little while, during the time of the inundation; but they are dry all the rest of the year.

This country was called Misraim, by the Hebrews and Arabs, who supposed the first sovereign was Misraim, the son of Cham and grandson of Noah. It was also called Coptus, from Coptus, the capital city of upper Egypt; and the natives were called Copts, as the Christians in Egypt are to this day, and esteemed the real descendants of the ancient Egyptians.

The climate of Egypt is esteemed extremely hot. The height of the sun, which, in summer, nearly approaches the zenith, is doubtless a primary cause of this heat; but when we consider, that in other countries under the same latitude, the heat is less we may conclude, there exists a secondary one; and this, perhaps, is the country being so little elevated above the level of the sea. On this account, two seasons only should be distinguished in Egypt, the spring and summer; that is to say, the cool and the hot season. The latter continues from March to November; and even from the end of February, the sun is not supportable, for a European, at nine o'clock in the morning. During the whole of this season, the air is inflamed, the sky sparkling, and the heat oppressive to all who are unaccustomed to it. The body sweats profusely, under the lightest dress, and in a state of the most profound repose. And this perspiration becomes so necessary, that the flightest suppression of it is a serious malady. The departure of the sun, tempers, in some degree, these heats. The vapours from the earth, soaked by the Nile, and those brought by the West, and North-west winds, absorbing the fire dispersed throughout the atmosphere, produce an equal freshness, and piercing cold, if we may credit the natives and some European merchants; but the Egyptians, almost naked, and accustomed to perspire, shiver at the least coolness. The thermometer, which at the lowest, in the month of February, stands at the eighth or ninth degree of Reaumur's scale above the freezing point, enables us to determine with certainty; and we may pronounce, that snow and hail are phenomena, which no Egyptian has seen in fifty years. As for our merchants, their sensibility is owing to their improper use of furs, which is carried so far, that in winter they have frequently two or three coverings of foxes-skins; and even in summer, retain the ermine, or petit-gris: in excuse for this, they plead the chilliness they experience in the shade, as an indispensable reason; and, in fact, the Northerly and Westerly currents of air, which almost continually prevail, cause a very great coolness out of the sun; but the reason is, that the pelise is the lace of Turkey, and their favourite luxury; it is the sign of opulence and the etiquette of dignity; and the investiture of important offices, is always accompanied with the present of a pelise.

It might naturally be imagined that Egypt, from these heats, and its wet and marshy condition for three months, must be an unhealthy country; but experience proves the fallacy of this supposition; the vapours of the stagnant waters, so fatal in Cyprus and Alexandretta, have not the same effect in Egypt. This appears to be owing to the natural dryness of the air, to the proximity of the desarts, which incessantly draw off the humidity, and the perpetual currents of air which meet with no obstacles. This aridity is such, that raw meat, exposed even in summer, to the North wind, does not putrisy, but dries up, and becomes hard as wood. In the desarts, dead carcases are found dried in this manner, which are so light, that a person may easily lift, with one hand, the entire body of a camel. It must be remarked, however, that the air near the sea, is infinitely less dry, than higher up the country: thus, at Alexandria and Rosetta, iron cannot be exposed twenty-four hours to the air, without rusting.

The air of Egypt, besides possessing this drying quality, appears strongly impregnated with salts, the proofs of which are every where apparent. The stones are corroded by natrum; and in moist places, long crystallizations of it are to be found, which might be taken for salt-petre.

It is no doubt this property of the air and the earth, which added to the heat, gives vegetation an activity, scarce credible in our cold climates. Whereever plants have water, the rapidity of their growth is prodigious. Whoever has travelled to Cairo, or Rosetta, knows that the species of gourd, called kara, will, in twenty-four hours, send out shoots near four inches long; but this soil appears unfavourable to all exotics. Foreign plants degenerate there rapidly; the truth of which is confirmed by daily experience. The merchants are obliged every year, to renew their seeds, and send to Malta for their cauliflowers, beetroot, and carrots; which, when sown, succeed very well at first; but if the seed produced from them be afterwards sown, the plants run up tall and weak. The same happens to apricots, pears, and peaches, when transported to Rosetta.

Were heat the principle of diseases, upper Egypt would not be habitable; but it only seems to occasion a burning fever, to which the inhabitants are subject, and which they cure by regimen, drinking much water, and bathing in the river: in other respects, they are strong and healthy. Old men are numerous, and many ride on horseback at eighty. The food they eat in the hot season, much contributes to the preservation of their health; it is chiefly vegetables, pulse, and milk. They bathe frequently, eat little, seldom drink fermented liquors, and mix much lemon juice in their food. This abstinence, preserves vigour to a very advanced age.

The North wind, in summer, continually blows, and finding no obstacle throughout all Egypt, where the mountains are not high, it drives the vapours of the marshes and lakes towards Abysinia, and incessantly changes the atmosphere. Perhaps, the balsamic emanations of orange flowers, roses, the Arabian jasmine, and odorous plants, contribute to the salubrity of the air. The waters of the Nile, also ligther and softer, and more agreeable to the taste, than any other, greatly influence the health of the inhabitants. All antiquity acknowledges their excellence; and the people certainly drink them with a kind of avidity, without being ever injured by the quantity. The Egyptians, says Aristides, are the only people who preserve the water of the Nile, in sealed vases, and drink it when it is old, with the same pleasure as we do old wine. Being lightly impregnated with nitre, they are only a gentle aperient to those who take them to excess. I will not, says Savary, with many writers, make believe, they render the women prolific, and give strength and plumpness to the men; the faithful historian ought to stop where the marvellous begins, and relate only what he can warrant.

In lower Egypt, the neighbourhood of the sea, the large lakes and the abundance of the waters moderate the sun's heat, and preserve a delightful temperature. Strabo and Diodorus Siculus, who long lived here, did not think the country unhealthy.

They have praised its fruitful soil, its grateful productions, its stately monuments, and its great population; without mentioning the dreadful maladies of which the moderns have made it the seat. Herodolus positively says, "The Egyptians are the most healthy people on earth; which advantage they owe to the salubrity of the air, and the temperature of the climate, which seldom varies; for most of the diseases of man, ought to be attributed to the rapid vicissitudes of seasons," To some moderns, who have never seen this fine kingdom, and especially to M. Paw, it was reserved to teach us a contrary doctrine. He pretends, that at present, "this country is become, by the negligence of the Turks and Arabs, the cradle of the pestilence; that another epidemical disease, equally dreadful, appears here occasionally, brought to Cairo, by the caravans of Nubia; that the culture of rice engenders numerous maladies; that the want of rain and thunder, occasions the air of the Thebais, to acquire a violence that ferments the humours of the body, &c." These assertions have an air of probability, which might impose on people who have not lived in Egypt; but M. Paw, has ventured opinions in his closet, without, the guidance of experience. Had he lived in this country, facts would have demonstrated the contrary.

In vallies, inclosed by high mountains, where the atmosphere is not continually renewed by a current of air, the culture of rice is unwholesome, and the husbandman often pays with his life, the rich harvest which the earth yields. But it is not the case near Damietta and Rosetta. The plains are nearly on a level with the sea; neither hill nor height impede the refreshing breezes of the North, which drives the clouds and exhalations of the flooded fields southward, continually purifies the atmosphere, and preserves the health of the people. Whether this, or any other be the cause, the husbandmen who cultivate the rice, are not more subject to diseases, than those of the Thebais, who do not. I passed, says Savary, the whole year amid rice-fields, which I every day went to see watered, without feeling the least inconveniences. An old surgeon, a native of Nice, and who had practised thirty years at Damietta, has repeatedly confirmed what I have advanced, on the healthiness of the country. The greatest torments to the inhabitants, are the gnats and musquitoes, which, rising by millions out of the marshes, swarm in the air and the houses. The handkerchief must be held in the hand all day. It is the first thing a visitor receives, and, at night, it is necessary to sleep under musquiteros.

The Southerly winds are known in Egypt, by the general name of winds of fifty days, not that they blow fifty days from the South without intermission; but, because they prevail more frequently in the fifty days preceding, and following the equinox. Travellers have mentioned them under the denomination of poisonous winds; or more correctly, hot winds of the desart. Such, in fact, is their quality, and their heat so excessive, that it is difficult to form an idea of its violence, without having experienced it; but it may be compared to the heat of a large oven, at the moment of drawing out of the bread. When these winds begin to blow, the atmosphere assumes an alarming aspect. The sky, at other times so clear in this climate, becomes dark and hoary; the sun loses its splendor, and appears of a violet colour. The air is not cloudy, but grey and thick; and is, in fact, filled with an extremely subtle dust, which penetrates every where. This wind, always light and rapid, is not at first remarkably hot; but it increases in heat, in proportion to its continuance. All animals soon discover it by the change it produces in them. The lungs, which a too refined air no longer expands, are contracted, and become painful. Respiration is short and difficult; the skin is parched and dry, and the body consumed by an internal heat. In vain is recourse had to large draughts of water; nothing can restore perspiration. In vain is coolness sought for in those bodies, in which it is usual to find it. Marble, iron, water, though the sun no longer appears, are hot. The streets are deserted, and a dead silence reigns every where. The inhabitants of towns and villages, shut themselves up in their houses; and those of the desart, in their tents, or in wells dug in the earth, where they wait the termination of this destructive heat. It usually lasts three days, but if it exceeds that time, it becomes insupportable. Woe to the traveller whom this wind surprises far from shelter. The danger is most imminent, when it blows in squalls, for then the rapidity of the wind increases the heat to such a degree, as to cause sudden death. This wind is especially destructive to persons of a plethoric habit; and those, in whom fatigue has destroyed the tone of the muscles and vessels. The corpse remains a long time warm, swells, turns blue, and is easily separated; all which are signs of that putrid fermentation, which takes place when the humours become stagnant. These accidents are to be avoided, by stopping the nose and mouth with handkerchiefs; an efficacious method, likewise, is that practised by the camels, which bury their noses in the sand, and keep them there till the squall is over.

Another quality of this wind, is its extreme aridity; which is such, that water sprinkled on the floor, evaporates in a few minutes; by its extreme dryness, it withers and strips all the plants, and by exhaling too suddenly, the emanations from animal bodies, crisps the skin, closes the pores, and causes that feverish heat which is the inseparable attendant of obstructed perspiration.

These hot winds are not peculiar to Egypt; they blow likewise in Syria; more frequently, however, near the sea, and in the desart, than in the mountains. Nieubuhr met with them in Arabia, at Bombay, and in the Diarbekir: they are also known in Persia, in the rest of Africa, and even in Spain; every where their effects are similar, but their direction varies according to the situation of the country. In Egypt, the most violent proceed from the South-South-West; at Mecca from the East; at Surat from the North; at Bassora from the North-West; from the West at Bagdad; and in Syria from the South-East. These varieties, which seem embarrassing at first sight, on reflection, furnish the means of solving the enigma. We find on examination, that these winds always proceed from desart continents; and, in fact, it is natural that the air which covers the immense plains of Lybia and Arabia, meeting there neither with rivulets, nor lakes, nor forests, but scorched by the rays of a burning sun and the reflection of the sand, should acquire a prodigious degree of heat and aridity. It is so true, that these qualities are owing to the action of the sun upon the sands; that these same winds produce not the same effects at every season. In Egypt, for example, the Southerly winds in December and January, are very cold; and, the reason is, that the sun having reached the Southern tropic, no longer burns up the Northern parts of Africa; and that Abysinia, which is extremely mountainous, is covered with snow. From a similar reason, the South wind has much less effect in Cyprus; where it arrives cooled by the vapours of the Mediterranean. In fact, this subject offers a multitude of problems, calculated to excite the curiosity of the naturalist. In Italy they are called the Sirroc winds.

To describe Egypt in a few words, let the reader imagine, on one side, a narrow sea and rocks; (the Red Sea) on the other immense plains of sand; and in the middle, a river flowing through a valley of one hundred and fifty leagues in length, and from three to seven wide; which, at the distance of thirty leagues from the sea, separates into two arms; the branches of which wander over a soil free from obstacle, and almost without declivity.

The prevailing taste for natural history, now, to the honour of the present age, become so general, demands, doubtless, some details on the nature of the soil, and the minerals of this extensive country. But the manner of travelling here, is ill adapted to promote such researches. It is not the same in this country as in Europe; travels there, are agreeable excursions; in Egypt, they are dangerous and difficult undertakings, especially for Europeans; whom the superstitious natives believe to be sorcerers, who are come to discover by magic, those treasures which the geniis have concealed under the ruins. This ridiculous, but deep-rooted opinion, added to perpetual wars and disturbances, deprives the traveller of security, and prevents every discovery. No one dares even to walk alone in the fields; nor can he procure any person to accompany him. The basis of all Egypt, is a continued bed of calcareous stone, of a whitish hue, and somewhat soft, containing shells analogous to those found in the neighbouring seas. Marble, likewise, is found at the foot of the mountains, bordering on the Red Sea. Copper is the only metal of this country, mentioned by the ancients. On the road to Suez, is the greatest quantity of what are called Egyptian flints, or pebbles; there, likewise, those stones have been found, which, from their form, were taken for petrified wood.

The two lakes of Natron, situated to the West of the Delta, are more interesting objects. Their bed is a sort of natural trench, three or four leagues long, by a quarter wide, the bottom of which is solid and stony. It is dry for nine months in the year; but in winter, there oozes from the earth, a water of a reddish violet colour, which fills the lake to the height of five or six feet; the return of the great heats, causing this to evaporate, there remains a bed of salt two feet thick, and very hard, which is broken with bars of iron. Thirty thousand quintals are produced from them every year. This phenomenon, which indicates a soil impregnated with salt, is common throughout all Egypt. Even when the gardens are overflowed, for the sake of watering them, the surface of the ground, after the evaporation of the water, appears glazed over with salt.

In the midst of these minerals of various qualities, in the midst of that fine and reddish coloured sand, peculiar to Africa, the earth of the valley through which the Nile flows, discovers properties which prove it of a distinct class. Its blackish colour, its clayey cementing quality, demonstrate its foreign origin; and, in fact, it is brought by the river from the heart of Abysinia. Without this fat and light mud, Egypt never could have produced any thing; that alone seems to contain the seeds of vegetation and fecundity: and these again are owing to the river, by which it is deposited.

If we consider Egypt, in relation to what constitutes the real power of a state, says Tott, the politician will, perhaps, look with a kind of contempt on this great metropolis of the world; this nurse of every science and every art, now become a province of the feeblest of empires. But the political philosopher will consider it in a light more worthy of his attention, should he discover in the climate, production and population of Egypt, the means by which it has been rendered so celebrated. Those advantages, which ages cannot destroy, and which have resisted the greatest revolutions, will appear to him preferable to such as, like chymical compositions, are to be decomposed by the contrary process to that by which they are produced.

Such have been, no doubt, those kingdoms, the memory of which has been preserved by history, though geography can scarcely point out the situation of their capitals. We shall perceive, that in Egypt the greatest kings endeavoured to acquire fame, by labours useful for the cultivation of the country; with these they appeased that thirst for glory, which, among other monarchs, was perpetually productive of violence and rapine.

If so prodigious a lake as that of Maeris, may be supposed to have been formed by the hands of men; the utility of this immense reservoir, would be the greatest monument of their beneficence; but should its extent and depth, leave some doubt as to its origin, none can be entertained with regard to the canals of Joseph, or Trajan, or that of Alexandria, or those of the Delta: they are visibly, works of human industry.

The facility with which the country is watered, leaves no part of it uncultivated; and the richness of the soil, by multiplying the harvest, maintains and animates population. There is no country, in which it is more remarkable than in Egypt, Delta, the provinces of the East and West, and all those on each side of the Nile, quite up to the tropic, are populous to an amazing degree. It is said, there are more than nine thousand villages, and twelve hundred towns in Egypt. It is very certain, they are so near to each other, that I have reckoned, says Tott, forty-two within sight, the farthest of which was not two leagues off.

Wherever the inundation can reach, habitations are erected on little hills, raised for that purpose, and which are contrived to take up as little room as possible, that they may save all the ground they can for cultivation.

The villages are always surrounded by an infinite number of pointed turrets, to invite thither the pigeons, in order to collect their dung. Every village has, likewise, a small wood of palm-trees near it, the property of which is common; these supply the inhabitants with dates for their consumption, and leaves for the fabrication of baskets, mats, and other things of that kind. Little causeways raised in like manner, above the inundation, preserve a communication during the time it lasts.

CHAP. II. Of the River Nile.

EGYPT has but one river, and on which its whole physical and political existence depends. It is the Nile that provides for the necessaries of animal life; the want of which is, so frequently and so distressfully, experienced in warm climates. The Nile alone, without the aid of rain, every where supplies vegetation with moisture; the earth, during the three months inundation, imbibing a sufficient quantity of water for the rest of the year. Were it not for this overflowing, only a very small part of the country could be cultivated, and even that would require prodigious labour; it is with reason, therefore, it has been stiled the source of plenty, happiness, and even of life itself. Had Albuquerque been able to execute his project, of turning its course into the Red Sea; this country, now so rich and fertile, would have become a savage desart, surrounded by solitudes.

It is with reason, that the Egyptians have always professed a religious veneration for the Nile; but a European must be pardoned, if, on hearing them boast its beauty, he smiles at their ignorance. Never will these troubled and muddy waters, have for him the charm of transparent fountains, and limpid streams; never, except from some extraordinary excitement, will a swarthy Egyptian woman, dripping from these yellow and muddy waters, remind him of the bathing Naiads. For six months of the year, the water of the Nile is so thick, that it must have time to settle before it can be drank; and, during the three months which precede the inundation, reduced to an inconsiderable depth, it grows heated, becomes green, foetid, and full of worms; and, it is necessary to have recourse to that which has been before drawn and preserved in cisterns. At all times, people of delicacy take care to perfume it, and cool it by evaporation.

Earthen vessels, unglazed, are kept carefully in every apartment, from whence the water continually transpires; this transpiration produces the more coolness, in proportion as it is more considerable; for this reason, these vessels are often suspended in passages, where are currents of air, and under the shade of trees. In several parts of Syria, they drink the water which has transpired; in Egypt, they drink that which remains; besides, in no country is so much water used. The first thing that an Egyptian does on entering his house, is to lay hold of the pitcher of water, and take a hearty draught of it, and thanks to their perpetual perspiration, they feel no inconvenience from the practice.

This river, says Tott, the sources of which are not known, receiving all the streams with which Abyssinia and Ethiopia are abundantly watered, descends into Egypt, which it crosses from South to North, to about four leagues below Cairo; where, dividing itself into two branches, it forms the island, so celebrated and well known by the name of Delta: it is said, he adds, that a traveller of the name of Bruce, has pretended to have discovered the source of the Nile. I saw at Cairo, the servant who was his guide, and the companion of his journey, who assured me, he had no knowledge of any such discovery. It may, perhaps, be objected, that a learned man like Bruce, was not obliged to give an account of his discoveries to his valet; but, in a desart, remarks Tott, the pride of celebrity vanishes. The master and servant disappear, and become only two men, necessitated to assist their mutual wants; the only superiority is possessed by the strongest; and the servant I have mentioned, born in the country, would certainly have corroborated Bruce's assertions, in a discovery merely typographical.

That the Nile rises in Ethiopia, admits not of a doubt; but, whether Bruce, or the Portugeuse jesuits of the last century, have been able to ascertain that particular fountain, which is indisputably the head, seems not so very clear. It does not appear, that any of these travellers have traced its course, step by step, from its source to its mouth. Savary says, the Abysinians, who bring gold dust to Grand Cairo, are unanimous in asserting, that this river, taking its rise in Ethiopia, divides into two branches; one of which, known by the name of Asserac, or the blue river, joins the Niger; and, traversing Africa from East to West, falls into the Atlantic ocean: and that, the 〈…〉 North, discharges itself into the Mediterranean This, we believe, is denied by Bruce; but of this matter we shall treat more fully, when we speak of Abysinia, where its source undoubtedly is.

The periodical inundation of this river, in a country where it scarcely ever rains, and which the heat of the climate, and the very nature of the soil, seem to have devoted to perpetual drought and sterility, is a most surprising phenomenon, and which, more particularly deserves to be noticed.

The increase of the Nile begins early in June, but is not much perceived till the summer solstice; when the waters become troubled, are of a reddish tincture, and are thought unwholesome. They must be purified before they are drank, which is done by mixing bitter almonds, pounded to dust, in a jar full of water, and kept turning with the arm for some minutes; it is then left to settle, and in five or six hours, the heterogeneous particles subside to the bottom of the vessel, and the water becomes limpid and excellent. The Egyptians attribute this fermentation of the Nile, to the dew, which then falls in abundance. Many historians have seriously affirmed, it contributed to the inundations. It is much more natural to think, that the river overflowing in Abysinia and Ethiopia, brings down a great quantity of sand, and millions of the eggs of insects; which, hatching about the time of the solstice, produce the fermentation of the waters, and that reddish tincture which renders them unhealthy.

The Nile continues encreasing till near the end of August, and often even in September. The progress of the inundation, is observed at the Nilometer; and public criers distributed in each quarter of Grand Cairo, the capital, every day make known to the people, the rising of the waters, till they are come to the height proper for opening the canal, by which they are conveyed to the middle of the city, and the cisterns. The Nilometer, is situated at the Southern point of the Island of Raouda; it is a column erected in the center of a low chamber, the bottom of which is on a level with the bed of the Nile.

As Egypt pays no tribute to the Grand Signior, if the waters do not rise to sixteen cubits; the Egyptians often disguise the truth, and do not proclaim they have risen to that height till they have surpassed it. When they are under sixteen cubits, a famine is dreaded; the years of abundance, are those between eighteen and twenty-two cubits. When the waters exceed this, they lay too long on the ground, and prevent its being sown; on the contrary, inundations below the medium, often leave the high lands fruitless.

The river, at this time, spreading itself over the country, on each side of its bed for several leagues, appears like a sea; whatever parts lay so remote, as to be out of the reach of the inundation, are watered by canals; so much is expended in its course, that it has been conjectured, not a tenth part of the water réaches the sea.

The appearance which Egypt presents at this season of the year, must be very singular and curious, to one who ascends a high building, and discovers a vast expanse of water all around, with towns and villages rising out of the flood; here and there a causeway, and numberless groves and fruit-trees, whose tops only are visible. When the waters retire, they leave a vast quantity of fish on the land; and, at the same time, what is much more valuable, a slime, which acts as manure, and fertilizes the fields. By this annual addition of soil, Egypt has been very much raised and enlarged in the course of years, and many places are now inland, which were formerly close to the sea, such particularly, is Damietta; and, as the mud of the Nile extends for some leagues into the sea, and accumulates every year, this country, by little and little, annually increases.

The day of proclamation for opening the canals, is a day of rejoicing, and a solemn feast among the Egyptians. The pacha and his whole court descend from the castle, and go in pomp to Fostat; where the canal begins that runs through Grand Cairo. He places himself under a magnificent pavillion erected there. The boys, with their musicians playing before him, and their mamluks following, are his attendants. The chief priests ride horses richly caparisoned; and all the inhabitants, on horseback, on foot, and in boats, hasten to be present at this ceremony. More than three hundred thousand people assemble on land and water. The boats, most of them painted and carved, have canopies and streamers of various colours. Those of the women, are known by their elegance, richness, and the gilt columns that support the canopy, and particularly by the blinds let down before the windows. The people all remain silent, till the moment the pacha gives the signal, and then, instantly shouts of joy rend the air; the trumpets sound their flourishes, and the kettle-drums, and other instruments, reverberate on all sides. Certain men throw down the statue of clay, which was placed on the mound, which statue is called, The betrothed, and is the remains of an ancient rite among the Egyptians, who consecrated a virgin to the Nile; and whom, in times of dearth, they sometimes threw into the waters. The mound, or dam, is presently destroyed; and the waters no longer meeting an obstacle, flow towards Grand Cairo. The pacha throws gold and silver coins into the stream, which good swimmers immediately dive for, and bring up. The inhabitants appear intoxicated with joy; they congratulate, and pay compliments to each other all day; and songs of thanksgiving are every where heard. A number of female dancers assemble on the banks of the Khalig, (canal) and regale the spectators with their lascivious dances. All is mirth and good cheer, and the very poor themselves feast. This universal rejoicing is not surprising: the fate of the country depends on the inundation, and when it arrives, all behold the hopes of harvest, the picture of plenty, and anticipate the promised good with transport.

The evenings present a spectacle still more agreeable. All the great squares of the city are floated; and the families assemble in boats, adorned with tapestry, rich cushions, and every convenience luxurious ease can wish. The streets, mosques, and minarets, are illuminated: they row from square to square, taking with them fruits and refreshments. This most numerous assembly, is usually at Lesbehia, which is the largest square in the city, and near half a league in circumference; it forms an immense bason, surrounded by the palaces of the beys, which are embellished with various coloured lights. Many thousands of boats, to the masts of which lamps are suspended, produce an ever-varying illumination. The clear and starry heavens, which there are seldom obscured by mists, and the profusion of atrificial lights on the waters, give all the brilliancy of day, to the sweet refreshing coolness of night. Imagine, says Savary, the pleasure with which the people, who have been scorched twelve hours by a sun so ardent, come and breathe the cool air of these lakes: seldom are the charms of this nocturnal seene disturbed by impetuous winds; they fall at sun-set, and gentler airs agitate the atmosphere. The charms of female society, are, however, here procured with difficulty. Men associate only with men, and women with women.

The lamps are obliged to be always kept lighted; this is a precaution necessary for the public safety, which the Oualli, who goes from place to place, takes care to see punctually observed. If this officer, who superintends the police, finds a boat without light, he is justified in beheading all the persons on board; and, unless a suitable present restrains the arms of the executioners who accompany him, he instantly and rigorously executes the sentence.

All the descriptions of Egypt have hitherto agreed to consider the mud, which the water acquires during its increase, and at length deposits on the inundated lands, as a manure by which they are fertilized. No vegetative quality, however, is discoverable, in analizing it, before its union with the sand; which, together with the clay, composes the soil of Egypt.

The Nile, notwithstanding the agitation of its waters, is so easy to confine, that many fields lower than the surface of the river, are preserved during its increase, from an inundation destructive to their productions, merely by a dam of moistened earth, not more than eight or ten inches in thickness.

This method, which costs the cultivator but little trouble, is made use of to preserve the Delta, when it is threatened by the flood. This island, which annually produces three harvests, is continually watered by machines, constructed on the Nile, and on the canals cut through the island, but it rarely is in danger of being overflowed; and this rich part of Egypt, which extends to the sea, would be still less affected by the swelling of the river, did not the wind, blowing a long time in one quarter, raise the waters of the Mediterranean toward the South.

It was without doubt, to provide against those years, when the Nile does not overflow a great part of the country, that the ancient sovereigns of Egypt cut so many canals; the principal of which are still kept in order, but the greater part neglected, and consequently one half of Egypt is deprived of cultivation. Those which convey the water to Cairo, to the province of Fayoom, and to Alexandria, are most attended to by government. An officer is appointed to watch this last, and hinder the Arabs of Bachria, who receive the superfluous waters of this canal, from turning them off before Alexandria be provided; or opening it before the time fixed, which would hinder the increase of the Nile. That which conveys the water into the province of Fayoom, is watched in like manner, and cannot be opened before that of Cairo, (which is called the canal of Trajan) be filled.

A number of other canals, only taken care of by those who derive advantage from them, issue from that arm of the Nile which runs to Damietta, and fertilize the province of Sharkia; which, making part of the isthmus of Suez, is the most considerable of Egypt, and the most capable of a great increase of cultivation. The plains of Gaza, which lie beyond, and are possessed by the Arabs, would not be less fertile, if the spirit of devastation did not destroy, even the spontaneous productions. Many other canals run through the isle of Delta, some of which are navigable, and render its culture equal to that of a well-managed kitchen-garden.

It may not be amiss to observe here, that the Delta, more elevated than the rest of Egypt, is bounded towards the sea, by a forest of palm-trees; the land of which is much higher than the highest rising of the waters; and this topographical remark, according to Volney, is sufficient to destroy the system of the formation of the Delta, by sediment. A country, which rises higher than the highest inundations, can never owe to them its origin. Such sediment can only occasion, says Tott, the division of the two branches of the Nile. Very respectable authorities have laboured to prove, that the Delta has been formed from the sediment of the Nile; particularly some of the first writers of antiquity, who are not so apt to err as the moderns.

The degrees of inundation are not the same through all Egypt. On the contrary, a gradual diminution obtains, as the river approaches the sea. At Syene, the overflow is more considerable by one sixth, than at Grand Cairo; and when the depth of water, at this latter city, is twenty-seven feet, it is scarcely four at Rosetta and Damietta. The reason of this is, that, besides the quantity of water absorbed by the grounds, as it flows, the river confined in one single bed, and within a narrow valley, rises higher in the upper country; but when it has passed Grand Cairo, being no longer obstructed by the mountains, and separating into a thousand branches, it necessarily loses in depth what it acquires in surface.

This river runs a course of fifteen hundred miles, from South to North; and, dividing as we have before observed, a little below Cairo, into two branches, falls into the Mediterranean, at about one hundred miles distant from each other.

From these two principal branches, says Rooke, go several others, intersecting the country that lies between; and this bounteous river, after scattering plenty over the land, during a course of many hundred miles, empties itself into the sea by seven mouths. The two most considerable, are those of Damietta and Rosetta, the former was the Ostium Pathmeticum of the antients; the latter, the Ostium Bolbitinum.

At Grand Cairo, it does not appear that the Nile is much broader than the Thames is at London, and in many parts near this city it is even fordable. In the upper parts of this river, are seven cataracts, where the Nile falls from a very great height, with a prodigious roaring; but, in lower Egypt, the stream glides along gently, and passengers are seldom obstructed on it by storms.

The banks of this river, as well as those of all the canals, are crouded with vast numbers of peasants, continually employed in watering the country, either by their own labour, or the management of those animals which relieve it. An infinite number of draw-wells, worked with a wheel, are contrived for this purpose; the waters, which are raised, are poured into a channel, and distributed among the grounds, at a distance from the river, by various canals; which the industry and activity of the cultivator, prepare with intelligence and economy. Women, occupied with the care of their families, are seen carrying home water, in jars, upon their heads; others wash their linen, bleach that which is newly made, spread it out, and give themselves up to that chearfulness and gaiety so natural to them, on every occasion; making the air resound with their shrill voices, the ulululatus of the Romans. The barges, which pass from one city to another, the boats employed in the conveyance of commodities, and the navigation which commerce maintains, add to the variety and motion of the scene.

This navigation, is principally remarkable for the agility of the watermen, and the manner in which they convey the pottery-ware, made in higher Egypt. It will be necessary, before this is explained, to observe, that the earthen pans, made to preserve water, ought to be bigger, the farther those, for whose use they are intended, dwell from the river; and as the inhabitants of lower Egypt, reside at the greater distance, the potters, who dwell in the higher, contrive the rafts accordingly by which they convey their wares. The largest jars, fastened by their handles, form the first row of the raft; the middle sized are placed next, and the least uppermost; the proprietor contrives for himself a convenient station, and, furnished with a long pole, commits himself to the course of the waters, without fearing to run a-ground on a soft clay, which can do no damage.

CHAP. III. Of the Agriculture, and Manner of raising Seed.

AGRICULTURE was honourable among the ancient Egyptians, which they had rendered most flourishing throughout their empire; witness their immense labours for distributing the waters over the lands. There are still eighty canals, like rivers; several of which are twenty, thirty, and forty leagues in length; receiving and distributing the inundation over the country. Except six, the others are almost filled up and dry, when the Nile is low. The grand lakes of Maeris, Behira, and Mareotis, were vast reservoirs, to contain the superabundant waters, and afterwards to disperse them in the plains. They were raised over the high lands, by chain buckets; the invention of which is due to the Egyptians. One ox can turn them, and water a vast field. These machines gave Archimedes the idea of his ingenious screw, which is still in use. Besides these reservoirs, all the towns, at a little distance from the Nile, are surrounded by spacious ponds, for the convenience of the inhabitants, and of agriculture. The remains we find of large mounds, were to contain the river; they also stopped the torrents of sand.

Twelve hundred years has this country been subject to a people, who have suffered these great works to perish. The limits of cultivated Egypt yearly decrease, and sterile lands every where accumulate. Population has equally suffered: ancient Egypt supplied food to eight millions of inhabitants: at present, the estimate is not one half.

The lands all belong to the chiefs, which they sell to individuals. When the proprietor dies, it descends to the son, but he is obliged to purchase his father's inheritance; nor is he certain of obtaining it; the highest bidder becomes the proprietor. Who will improve lands, which he cannot transmit to his successor? The farmer wanting only a livelihood, leaves part of his grounds untilled. The labours of agriculture are very light to what they are in other countries. The ox having made a slight furrow, the field is hoed and levelled like a garden; and, when sowed, slightly harrowed, and here ends the labour of the husbandman, till harvest, which is abundant in the extreme, and never fails but with the inundation. The corn and barley, ripe, are reaped, and laid on the floor; and the farmer, seated in a cart with cutting wheels, and drawn by oxen blindfolded, drives over the straw which it chops. The corn, winnowed, is yellow, large, and of exceeding good quality. The Egyptians eat red, half-baked bread; bad, because, instead of wind and water-mills, they use a hand-mill, and do not sufficiently sift the flour. A French baker, made bread as white as snow, says Savary, and excellently tasted, with this same wheat.

Rice requires a little more care; the field must be inundated, well cleared, and watered every day, which is done by chain-buckets. It is cut in five months, and the product is usually eighty bushels for one. Besides these grains, Egypt produces abundance of doura, or Indian millet; flax, formerly so famous, hemp, carthamus, or bastard saffron; and multitudes of exquisite melons, and other vegetables, which the people eat during the heats.

Seed-time differs according to the province, and the height of the ground. Near Syene, wheat and barley are sown in October, and reaped in January. About Girja the harvest month is February; and in March, round Grand Cairo: such is the general progress of the harvest through the Said. There are many exceptions, according as the lands are, high or low, more or less distant from the river. They sow and reap all the year in Egypt, wherever they can obtain the water of the Nile. The land is never fallow, and yields three harvests annually; there the traveller incessantly beholds the charming prospect of flowers, fruits, corn and spring. Summer and Autumn at once present their treasures. Descending from the cataracts, at the begining of January, the wheat is seen almost ripe; farther on it is in ear; and still farther the fields are green. Lucern is mowed three times, between November and March, and is the only hay there is in Egypt, and is used chiefly to fodder cattle. Horses, asses, mules and camels graze in the meadows, during winter; and they eat chopped straw, barley and beans; which kind of food gives health, strength and mettle. The Arabs accustom their horses to great abstinence, water them only once a day. and feed them with a little barley and milk.

The Egyptians, who seldom cultivate the olive, buy their oil in Crete and Syria; but as the love of illumination has descended to them, from their forefathers, they extract oil from various plants; the commonest is the produce of the sesamum; they call it lamp oil. They also extract it from the seed of the carthamus, from flax, popies, and lettuce. The oil of the carthamus is eaten by the common people.

Their manner of raising bees is not a little extraordinary, and bespeaks great ingenuity. Upper Egypt, preserving its verdure only four or five months, the flowers and harvests being seen no longer, the people of Lower Egypt profit from this circumstance, by assembling on board large boats, the bees of different villages. Each proprietor confides his hives, with his own mark, to the boatman; who, when loaded, gently proceeds up the river, and stops at every place where he finds verdure and flowers. The bees swarm from their cells at break of day, and collect their nectar, returning, several times, loaded with booty; and in the evening re-enter their hives, without ever mistaking their abode. Thus, sojourning three months on the Nile, the bees, having extracted the perfumes of the orange flowers of the Said, the essence of the roses of Fayoum, the sweets of the Arabian jasmin, and of every flower, are brought back to their homes, where they find new riches. The proprietors pay the boatmen, on their return, according to the number of hives they have taken, from one end of Egypt to the other.

Having now given a general view of the face of the country, climate and productions, we proceed to treat of the different cities, beginning first with those in Lower Egypt.

CHAP. IV. Of the Cities, Grand Cairo, &c.

THE cities in Egypt are all situated on the Nile, or the great canals; the houses are built of brick, several stories high, and in a taste similar to that in vogue, two or three hundred years ago, in the great cities of Europe. The palm-trees, which surround the Egyptian cities, and the vessels which line the banks of the Nile, or the canals on which they are built, add to the beauty of their situation.

It is by uniting agriculture with commerce, that all the cities of Egypt incite, encourage, and profit by the industry which encircles them; but the advantages which Grand Cairo enjoys, are not confined to the interests of Egypt alone; its commerce embraces both the hemispheres; and its streets are continually crowded with camels, which bring the merchandize of Egypt, and the Indies; and piled with bales of goods, from Madras and Marseilles; so that Grand Cairo appears to be the centre of the world.

This city, called by the Arabs Missir, is situated on the right side of the Nile; about half a league from the river. It is adjoining to the mountains of Arabia; at the western angle of these mountains, the castle of Old Cairo is built. Boulac, the port of Old Cairo, forms the suburbs; and if the number of their inhabitants are added to that of the city, we shall find assembled here, not less than seven hundred thousand persons; a proof of the great number of the inhabitants in Egypt.

In the fifteenth century Grand Cairo was one of the richest, and most flourishing cities in the world; the emporium of Europe and Asia, and traded from the straits of Gibraltar, to the furthest limits of India. The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, and the Ottoman conquest, have deprived it of great part of its opulence and splendor; yet, its admirable situation, and the fertility of Egypt, are advantages so great, that, in a space of three leagues, it still contains an infinity of people, and immense riches.

The extent of Grand Cairo, along the principal canal, from North to South, is one league and a half; and three quarters of a league in breadth, from East to West. Its whole circumference is best seen from a mount overlooking the city, by which it is half encircled, like an immense crescent. The streets are so narrow and winding, some scarce admitting two persons to walk a breast, that it is impossible to follow their direction, amidst the multitudes of houses, which stand crouding on each other; vast vacancies only can be distinguished; and there are squares, which become ponds, in the time of inundation, and gardens the rest of the year. They are rowed over in September, and covered with flowers and verdures, in April.

The principal street in the city is called the Khaliz, or canal, being under water nine months in the year; it is, in many places, paved with marble; and, during the other three months, people walk along it, as they do in the other streets. This street, or canal, is said to have been dry by order of one of the Pharaoh's. Previous to the inundation of the Nile, it is dammed up; and, when the river has risen to a certain height, broken down; on which the water instantly flows into the city; and, by lesser canals, is communicated to the reservoirs, gardens, and adjacent country. All the cities of Egypt have canals to convey the waters of the Nile to them. This river rises to its greatest height about August. In October it begins to decrease. The criers then go about the city, to acquaint the inhabitants that the water-carrier can get no more water from the canal; as it is then no longer fit to be drank, and becomes stagnant, from all kinds of nastiness being thrown into it. After it has ceased entirely to flow, the stench is intolerable.

When the water is to be drained from the canal, it is divided, in several places, by the means of small dykes: above which they throw the water on both sides, and cause it to run off by degrees. This is generally done in May. They afterwards shovel up the mud; and, loading their asses with it, carry it into the fields. If this was not repeated every year, the canal, in a short time, would be so full of mud, that the houses would be under water, during the time of the inundation.

From what has been said, it is evident, that in those towns, which are at any distance from the Nile, the inhabitants have but very indifferent water, for drinking, the greatest part of the year; it being only such as is preserved in their ponds and reservoirs, or what is brought to them by the Arabs, in goat-skins, which is very indifferent.

Next to the Khaliz is the Bazar street; where, on market-days, there is such a concourse of people collected, that it is almost impossible to pass along. This is a very long and spacious street; at one end of it is a Bezistan, where may be seen shops as magnificent as any in Constantinople; at the other end is the slave-market.

Grand Cairo contains near three hundred mosques; most of them with minarets. These give an agreeable variety to a city, which, from the flatness of its roofs, appears uniform. Public cryers, at appointed hours, as in all towns of Turkey, call the people to prayers, from these minarets: about eight hundred voices are heard, at the same moment, from all quarters of the city, calling man to the performance of his duty to God. The Turks abhor the noise of bells, and say it offends the ears, is unmeaning, and proper only for beasts of burden. They derive this opinion from Mahomet, who, like a great politician, desirous that all his institutions should have one tendency, and willing to captivate both the senses and understanding, rejected the trumpet of the Jews, and the rattle of the Oriental Christians. He knew the human voice would make a greater impression on the mind of man, than the grating sound of insensible brass; and produced a holy summons, sent by heaven, conformable to his views.

The circuit of this city, says Rooke, is seven miles; the houses extremely high, and the streets very narrow, not being wider than our alleys in London, and are always full of people, most of them being mounted; the Turks of fashion on horseback; Christians and Plebeians on jackasses. To the extreme height of the houses, they add every other contrivance possible, to exclude the sun; placing over, from the top of the houses on one side of the street, to those of the other, canvas strained on frames; whereby the streets are very much darkened, and the sun totally excluded; one advantage in this hot country; but then, on the other hand, the air is, by that means, rendered close and soffocating.

The castle of Cairo stands on a steep rock, and is surrounded by thick walls, on which are strong towers. It was a place of great force before the invention of gunpowder; but, being commanded by the neighbouring mountains, it would not now stand the fire of a battery erected there, two hours. It is more than a quarter of a league in circumference.

This castle includes the palaces of the Sultan of Egypt, now almost buried under their own ruins; domes overthrown, heaps of rubbish, gilding, and pictures, the colours of which have defied corroding time; stately marble columns still standing, but, in general, without capitals: such are the tokens of its former magnificence. In one of the halls of these ruinous buildings, the rich carpet is fabricated, which the Emir Hadji bears every year to Mecca, to cover the Caaba, or temple of Abraham,

The pachas inhabit a large building, containing nothing remarkable, the windows of which look towards the square Caramaydan. The hall of audience, where the divan assembles three times a week, is nearly as long, but not so wide, as Westminster hall; and is stained by the blood of the beys, massacred, some years ago, by order of the Porte. These are, however, at present, the sovereigns of Egypt; for the Grand Signior's representative is a phantom, with which they sport: they keep him to serve their own purposes; then dismiss him with shame. He cannot leave his palace, in which he is a prisoner, without their permission. Thus humbled is the Ottoman pride, thus feeble, and thus reduced is that empire, which threatened to enslave Europe.

The mint is near Caramaydan, where a prodigious quantity of medins and sequins are struck, with the die of the bey who governs the city. The sequins, worth about six shillings and threepence, are made of the gold-dust supplied by the caravans of Abysinia; which, the master of the mint declared, annually brought near one hundred and seventy thousand pounds sterling.

Enriched and occupied with the commerce of Egypt by the Nile, of Europe by the Mediterranean, and of Yemen and the Indies by the Red Sea, the luxury which follows this extensive commerce is increased to such a degree, that gold is esteemed common, nor can the richest manufactures of India give satisfaction.

Joseph's, well is among the things, the most curious, the castle contains. It is sunk in the rock, two hundred and twenty feet deep, and forty-two in circumference. It includes two excavations, not perpendicular to each other. A staircase, the descent of which is exceedingly gentle, is carried round; the partition which separates the staircase from the well, is part of the rock, left only six inches thick, with windows cut at intervals, to give light; but as they are small, and some of them low, it is necessary to descend by the light of candles.

There is a reservoir, and a level space, at that part of the well where it takes a new direction; and oxen, which turn a machine that draws water from the bottom of the well. Other oxen, from above, raise it out of this reservoir, by a simple machine. This water comes from the Nile, and as it has been filtrated through sand, impregnated with salt and nitre, is brackish.

Thirty columns of red granite, being ruins of the palace of Salah Eddin, are still standing: the shaft of each is forty-five feet high, and a single stone. The variations in their dimensions, and the ornaments sculptured round the capitals, bespeak their having been from more ancient monuments. Some distance from these beautiful columns is a delightful balcony, or pavillion, standing in the highest part of the citadel, the prospect from which is most extensive. The whole of Grand Cairo, with its multitudinous mosques and minarets, is seen at a view. Toward Boulac, fruitful fields, and rich harvests, interspersed with groves of date-trees; on the South-west, Fostat, or Old Cairo, and the plains of Said beyond; which, when inundated by the Nile, contain hamlets scattered up and down like islands. The landscape is terminated by the pyramids, which, like painted mountains, appear lost in the clouds. The eye is never wearied with objects so various and grand; the fresh air breathed in this elevated situation, and the coolness it imparts, is an additional pleasure. Seated in this delightful pavillion, how many agreeable thoughts rise in the mind; yet how suddenly are these sweet meditations disturbed by gloomy melancholy! Here, in the rich fields, arts and sciences once flourished, where now an ignorant and barbarous people trample them under foot. Tyranny, with its iron sceptre, is become the scourge of the first of countries, in which the miseries of men seem to increase, in proportion to the efforts of nature to render them happy!

When we hear of Grand Cairo, says Volney, in his description of this city, we are led to imagine it must be a capital, like those of Europe; but if we reflect that our cities have only begun to be rendered convenient and elegant, within these last hundred years, we shall easily believe, that in a country where nothing has been improved since the tenth century, they must partake of the common barbarism; and, indeed, we shall find that Cairo contains none of those public, or private edifices, those regular squares, or well-built streets, in which the architect displays his genius. Its environs are full of hills of dust, formed by the rubbish every day accumulating; whilst the multitude of tombs, and the stench of the common sewers, are offensive to the smell and sight. Within the walls the streets are winding and narrow; and, as they are not paved, the crowds of men, camels, asses and dogs, which press against each other, raise a very disagreeable dust; individuals often water their doors, and to this dust succeeds mud and pestiferous exhalations. Contrary to the general custom of the East, the houses have two or three stories; over which is a terrace of stone, or tile. All these houses have the air of prisons; for they have no light from the street. The rooms within are ill contrived. Among the great, however, are to be found some ornaments, as well as conveniences; their vast halls, especially, in which water spouts up into marble basons, are peculiarly well adapted to the climate. The paved floor, inlaid with marble and coloured earthen ware, is covered with mats and mattrasses; and over all is spread a rich carpet, on which every one fits cross-legged. Around the wall is a sort of sopha, with cushions to support the back and elbows; and above, at the height of seven or eight feet, a range of shelves, decked out with China and Japanese porcelain. The walls, naked in other respects, are chequered with sentences extracted from the koran, and painted foliages and flowers, with which also the porticos of the beys are covered; the windows have neither glass, nor moving sashes, but only an open lattice-work, which frequently costs more than our glazing. The light enters from the inner courts, from whence the sycamores reflect a verdure, pleasing to the eye. An opening to the North, or at the top of the ceiling, admits a fresh breeze, while, by a whimsical contradiction, they wrap themselves up in warm woollen cloths and furs. The rich pretend, by this means, to escape diseases; but the common people, with their blue shirts, and hard mats, are less liable to take cold, and enjoy better health.

Among the singularities which appear most extraordinary to a stranger at Cairo, may be mentioned the great number of ugly dogs, which roam about the streets; and the kites, which skim over the houses, with frequent and doleful cries. The mussulmen kill neither of these, though they are equally held to be unclean; on the contrary, they often throw them the fragment of their tables; and devotees here, as in the other parts of the Turkish dominions, endow charitable foundations of bread and water for the dogs. These animals have besides, the resource of the common sewers; which, however, does not prevent them from suffering by hunger and thirst; but it is very astonishing, that these extremities never occasion madness. Prosper Alpinus has already made this remark, in his treatise on the physic of the Egyptians. Canine madness is equally unknown in Syria; the name of the malady, however, is to be found in the Arabic language, and is not borrowed from any foreign tongue.

Among other things worthy of notice in Grand Cairo, we must not omit the ovens for hatching chickens. It seems incredible, that they should be able to hatch chickens without the hen's sitting upon the eggs; and still more improbable, that they should afterwards sell these chichens by the bushel, and yet both of these are done. The eggs are laid in ovens, which they can heat to such a temperature, as to be like the natural heat of the hens; by this means, the chickens when hatched, are as strong and well fledged, as those produced in the common way, These ovens are built in a low place, and almost under ground. They are made of earth, in a circular form, and the earth is covered with flax and cow's hair, on which the eggs are laid. There are twelve of these ovens placed in two rows, one over the other, with a passage between. The eggs, to the number of eight or nine thousand in each oven, are arranged in heaps in the lower story, and a fire of dried cow-dung kindled in the upper row, morning and evening, an hour each. This repeated for eight days, and the building being sufficiently heated, the fire is put out, every aperture closed, and a part of the eggs heaped below, are carried above. The superintendant occasionally examines, if it be necessary to increase or diminish the heat. On the nineteenth day, the chickens begin to move in their shells, nibble with their beaks on the twentieth, endeavouring to break their prison, and are usually completely hatched on the twenty-first: then do these eggs, apparently lifeless, begin to move, and roll about the floor, and thousands of little various coloured chickens to run and hop round the apartment. This sight is truly diverting. They are carried in panniers, and cried about the streets on the morrow, each house stocking itself at a halfpenny a piece. Various authors have said, these fowls are not so good as those hatched by the hen, but they are mistaken, says Savary; for a French cook, whom he saw at Grand Cairo, bought them every year, and when well well fed, they became excellent poultry.

There are only four months in the year proper for this operation, on account of the great heats; these are from December to April, and in that time it is computed, there are above three hundred thousand chickens hatched in this manner. This commerce is carried on by the Copts; the great art seems to be in giving the ovens a proper degree of heat, as too much, or too little, will destroy the embryo.

Boulac, only half a league from Grand Cairo, and making part of its suburbs, is the port where all the merchandize, from Damietta and Alexandria, is landed. This suburb, situated on the Eastern bank of the Nile, is two miles long, but narrow. It contains superb public baths, and vast okals. These are square buildings, including a large court with a portico, over which is a winding gallery: the ground-floor is divided into spacious magazines, and the rooms above have neither furniture nor ornaments. Here strangers live and deposit their wares; and these okals, having only one gate, like that of a citadel, are secure in time of revolt, from all insult. These are the only inns in Egypt, and strangers are obliged to find their own furniture and food; for, in this country, money cannot procure dinners ready dressed.

In front of the houses at Boulac, are seen thousands of vessels, of various forms and sizes, at anchor. Some large and strong, carrying two masts, are trading barks; these usually have a large cabbin for passengers: others, light and without decks, are only to ferry people from one side of the river to the other. A third sort, are pleasure-boats, artfully carved and painted, containing charming cabins, carpeted over, and affording shelter from the sun's heat. Here, reclined at ease, on cushions, the wealthy go to breathe that fresh and cooling air, which is continually active upon the Nile; and here admire the variegated landscapes which its ever-verdant banks present. When the wind is favourable, the sail is hoisted, and these light boats seem to fly over the surface of the water.

Half a league from Boulac, is the old castle of Hellai. Here the beys, accompanied by their stately train, go to receive the new pacha, and conduct him in pomp to the prison, from which they have just expelled his predecessor. Round this castle are spacious enclosures, where the orange, citron, and pomegranate, planted without order, grow exceedingly high and tufted: their twining branches form charming arbours, over which the sycamore and palm extend their dark-green foliage, and among them rivulets meander, and the clustering rose and bazil bloom. It is impossible to describe the delight of breathing the fresh air, beneath these enchanting shades; under a climate so continually possessing the burning heat of the dog-days; this pleasure only can be felt. The odour of the orange flower, and the aromatic emanations of balsamic plants, gently renovate the senses, and infuse the most agreeable sensations. It is dangerous for a European to frequent these groves, being peopled by concubines, whom the jealous Turks, if they slip, never pardon. Abandoned to the delights of contemplation, and indulging those delicious sensations the time and place inspired, says Savary, I once, incautiously, proceeded towards the thickest part of one of them; when a terrifying voice suddenly exclaimed—Where are you going? Stand, or you are dead.—It was a slave who guarded the entrance of the grove, that no rash curiosity might disturb the females who reposed on the verdant banks. I instantly turned about, happy in not having been known to be a European. I afterwards understood, the beys go there sometimes with their harem, and that any over iniquisitive stranger, who should wander there at such a time, would risk the immediate loss of his head.

While describing the environs of Grand Cairo, we ought not to forget the ancient Heliopolis, formerly famous for cultivating the higher branches of science, and for the grandeur of its building. Strabo tells us, it was built on a long slip of earth, raised by men, to secure it from inundation; and the place he describes, is covered with ruins, two leagues North-east of Cairo.

Heliopolis, possessed a temple of the sun; where, in a particular enclosure, the sacred ox was fed. This ox, was adored here by the name of Mnevis, as he was at Memphis, by that of Apis. The credulous people supposed it a god; the priests, an animal, most useful to agriculture• in a country, where he assists in tillage, and afterwards in watering the earth, during six months of the year. When the waters of the Nile are low, oxen are employed to turn machines, with chain-buckets, which raise the water into reservoirs, whence it is dispersed over the grounds; for which reason, this animal is preserved at its birth, and it is forbidden to kill a calf in Egypt.

The temple of the sun was not the only one at Heliopolis; there was another, built in the old Egyptian stile, with sphynx avenues, and stately obelisks before the principal entrance. Nothing could have a finer effect, than the colossal figures of marble, and high pillars of a single stone, which were in front of the vestibule of Egyptian temples. These temples were ruins, in the time of Augustus. Two, of the four obelisks, which Sochis had erected in that city, were carried to Rome; a third was destroyed by the Arabs; and the fourth remains on its pedestal. It is a single stone, brought from the Thebais, perfectly polished, sixty-eight feet high above the base, and about six feet and a half square. The obelisk is in good preservation. This, and one sphynx of yellowish marble, thrown in the dust, are the only remains of Heliopolis.

There was formerly a college of priests here, where, for more than a thousand years, they had made astronomical observations; and, by their labours, calculated the solar year of 365 days, and some minutes; which alone, will prove the extent of their knowledge in this science. It was many years afterwards, before the people of Europe could exactly determine the solar year; and Julius Coesar, wishing to reform the Roman kalendar, was obliged to employ an astronomer of Alexandria.

At Heliopolis, Herodotus was chiefly instructed in the sciences, and Egyptian mysteries; which were those profound branches of knowledge, they thought proper to conceal from the people, under the veil of religion; and, by writing them in hieroglyphics. Enlightened by what he learnt from them, this father of history, was crowned at the Olympic games; and the nine books he composed, deemed worthy of the nine muses, whose names they bore. And yet, how many people, remarks Savary, who have not read him at all, or not enough, have dared to criticise, or call him fabulous. For my own part, says the above writer, suspending his judgment on the remainder of his history, I can only estimate the worth of what he says concerning Egypt; and, with the utmost satisfaction I can truly say, I have found the manners and customs of this country, such as he describes them; except with some slight modifications, as a change of government and religion, must necessarily have introduced. As to the monuments he has described, what remains, proves he has not exaggerated, and demonstrates the possibility of what is no more. Justice demands this homage, in favour of an historian, who, like Homer, was the painter of nations.

Heliopolis has not only the glory of having instructed Herodotus, but also of having taught philosophy to Plato; who, from the sublimity of his doctrine, has obtained the epithet of Divine. In this city, Eudoxus remained thirteen years, and became one of the most famous astronomers of his time. What now remains of all her monuments, and of all her sciences? A barbarous Persian has overthrown her temples; a fanatic Arab burnt her books; and one solitary obelisk, overlooking her ruins, says to passengers, THIS ONCE WAS HELIOPOLIS.

Herodotus, and some other writers after him, relate some particulars concerning the Phoenix, and the temple of the sun; which, if true, would be very wonderful. Of this kind of birds, according to the opinions of the ancients, there is never but one at a time in the world. He is brought forth in Arabia, is about the size of an eagle, and lives between five and six hundred years. His head is adorned with a shining and most beautiful crest; the feathers of his neck are of a gold colour, and the rest are purple; his tail is white, intermixed with red, and his eyes sparkling like stars. When he finds his end approaching, he builds a nest with wood, and aromatic spices, and then dies. From his bones and marrow a worm is produced, out of which another phoenix is formed. His first care, is to solemnize his parent's obsequies; for this purpose, he makes up a ball in the shape of an egg, with abundance of perfumes, as large as he can carry; a hole is then made in it, into which he puts his parent's body, and closes it up carefully with myrrh, and other perfumes. After this, he takes up the precious load, and flying to the altar of the sun, in the city of Heliopolis, he there burns it.

Herodotus and Tacitus dispute the truth of the circumstances, as here related; but suppose it to be true in general. Pliny, on the contrary, looks upon the whole to be fabulous; and this is the opinion of most modern authors▪ This ancient tradition, hath introduced into most languages, the custom of giving the appellation of phoenix, to whatever is singular and uncommon. Rara avis in terris, says Juvenal, a rare bird, when speaking of the difficulty to find an accomplished woman in the world. Seneca makes the same remark, respecting a good man.

At a little distance from Heliopolis, is the small village of Mataree, so called, because it has a fresh water spring; and what is remarkable, the only one in Egypt. Tradition has rendered it famous, as being the place to which the holy family came, when they fled from Herod: and that the blessed virgin bathed the child Jesus in this fountain. In this village was an enclosure, where slips of the balsam shrub brought from Mecca, was cultivated; and which the Eastern women made use of, to give a freshness to the complexion, and to fortify the stomach. This precious plant is lost to Egypt; where the pachas, for it was a pacha who brought it from Mecca, do not stay long enough to think of any thing, but the interest of the present moment.

Giza, supposed by many writers, to be the ancient scite of the Memphis, is situated opposite to Grand Cairo, on the other side of the Nile, and is the village where the French merchants have their country houses. The beautiful island of Raouda, and its odoriferous bowers, the Mekias, against which the waves beat with violence, old Cairo, and its surrounding gardens, with a multitude of boats, which are continually crossing the river, are seen from the principal houses: extensive and verdant prospects, variegated with houses, mosques, or more distant minarets, charm the eye, inducing the spectators to sit hours contemplating these smiling objects; while the fresh air, which follows the course of the Nile in currents, comes, re-animates the senses, and gives the soul that energy, which is necessary to taste the beautiful and the sublime. To Giza, therefore, fatigued by business, or suffocated by the heats of Grand Cairo, the French come to repose; at Giza they recover their health, and in pure and cooling air, breathe life in the aromatic exhalations of plants and flowers.

At some farther distance from Grand Cairo, on a canal running into the lake Bourlos, is the village of Tanta, where there is a considerable annual fair, to which the inhabitants of upper and lower Egypt come in crouds, to exchange their native produces for India stuffs, Moka coffee, and French cloths. It continues a week; and desire of gain brings some of the Egyptians, while love of pleasure causes many more to come to it. Ten thousand boats are upon the canal at this season, all carrying abundance of provisions; where are good cheer, music, and rejoicing. There are nearly as many tents pitched on shore, to which the most famous courtezans of Egypt fail not to come. They likewise go on board the boats, where they display their talents for dancing, singing, and gallantry. Many glass lamps are nightly lighted; the repetition of which, reflects innumerable stars in the waters. The tents have the same, and this wonderful illumination, for the extent of a league, produces on the grass, and the chrystal streams, charming effects. These fairs, much frequented, are not uncommon. They are the remains of the ancient pilgrimages of the Egyptians, to Canopus, Sais, and Bubustus.

The three other cities we propose to notice, are Alexandria, Rosetta, and Damietta.

The city of Alexandria, founded by Alexander the Great, and afterwards so much admired and adorned by the Romans, the residence of Cleopatra, and refuge of Anthony, once famous for its magnificence, luxury, and learning, is now become an undistinguishable heap of ruins; baths, palaces, porticos, and amphitheatres, lie promiscuously jumbled together. The savage race of the Saracens, when they took it, has reduced it to this miserable state; but a circumstance more to be lamented than any other, was the destruction of the famous Ptolemean library, containing one hundred thousand volumes. On taking the city, the general sent to the caliph, to know his orders respecting these books; who returned for answer, by all means to burn them; for if they were agreeable to the Alcoran, they were superfluous, and if contrary to it, impious; accordingly, the Mussulmen applied them to the purpose of heating their baths, and it was six months before they were consumed.

The name of this city, says Volney, speaking of Alexandria, which recalls to memory the genius of one of the most wonderful of men; the name of the country which reminds us of so many great events; the picturesque appearance of the place itself; the spreading palm-trees; the terraced houses, which seem to have no roof; the lofty slender minarets; every thing announces to the traveller who has just entered Egypt, that he is in another world; a variety of novel objects present themselves to every sense; he hears a language, whose barbarous sounds, and sharp and guttural accents, offend his ear; he sees dresses of the most unusual and whimsical kind, and figures of the strangest appearance. Instead of our naked faces, our heads swelled out with hair, our triangular head-dresses, and our short and close habits, he views with astonishment, tanned visages, with beards and mustachios, bundles of stuff, rolled up in folds, on their bald heads; long garments, which, reaching from the neck to the heels, serve rather to veil, than clothe the body; pipes of six feet long, with which every one is provided; hideous camels, which carry water in leathern pouches; and saddled and bridled asses, which lightly trip along with their riders in flippers: he observes their markets ill supplied with dates, and round flat little loaves; a filthy drove of half-starved dogs roaming through the streets, and a kind of wandering phantoms; which, under a single piece of drapery, discover nothing human, but two eyes, which shew they are women.

Amid this croud of unusual objects, his mind is incapable of reflection; nor is it until he has reached his place of residence, so desirable after a long voyage, that, after becoming more calm, he reflects on the narrow, ill-paved streets, the low houses, which, though not calculated to admit much light, are still more obscured by lattice-work, the meagre and swarthy inhabitants, who walk bare-footed, without other cloathing than a blue shirt, fastened with a leathern girdle, or a red handkerchief; while the universal air of misery, so manifest in all he meets, and the mystery which reigns around their houses, point out to him the rapacity of oppression, and the distrust attendant upon slavery.

But his whole attention is soon attracted by those vast ruins, which appear on the land side of the city. In our countries ruins are an object of curiosity. Scarcely can we discover, in unfrequented places, some ancient castle, whose decay announces rather the desertion of its master, than the wretchedness of the neighbourhood. In Alexandria, on the contrary, we no sooner leave the New Town, than we are astonished at the sight of an immense extent of ground, overspread with ruins. In a walk of two hours we follow a double line of walls and turrets, which form the circumference of ancient Alexandria. The earth is covered with the remains of lofty buildings destroyed; whole fronts crumbled down, roofs fallen in, battlements decayed, and the stones corroded, and disfigured by salt-petre. The traveller passes over a vast plain, furrowed with trenches, pierced with wells, divided by walls in ruins, covered over with ancient columns and modern tombs, amid palm-trees and nopals, (the cochineal); and where no living creature is to be met with, but owls, bats, and jackalls.

Modern Alexandria is a place of small extent, scarcely containing six thousand inhabitants, but exceedingly commercial; which advantage it owes to its situation. Ancient Alexandria contained three hundred thousand free inhabitants in the time of Augustus; a double number of slaves may, at least, be added; and the amount will be nine hundred thousand. How prodigious the difference!

The canal of Faoua, the only one which still runs to Alexandria, and without which it could no longer be a town, since it has not a drop of soft water, is half filled up with mud and sand. Under the government of the Romans, and even of the Arabs, it was navigable all the year; and its banks were shaded by date-trees, covered by vines, and ornamented with pleasure-houses. The stream only flows now about the end of August, leaving scarce time to fill the reservoirs; the lands are become desarts, and the groves and gardens have disappeared.

Yet are not all the tokens of ancient magnificence effaced: the cisterns, built under all parts of the city, are almost entire. Toward the eastern part of the palace are two marble obelisks, vulgarly called Cleopatra's needles, containing numerous hieroglyphics: one is thrown down, broken, and covered with sand; the other still rests on its pedestal; each, cut from one single stone, is about sixty feet high, and seven feet square, at the base.

Nothing can equal the majesty of a column of red granite, standing near the southern gate of this city, commonly known by the name of Pompey's pillar, and which is the most striking object now extant. The whole column is a hundred and fourteen feet high, and still preserves a perfect polish. The circumference of the base is about sixty feet. The shaft and the upper stories of the base are one single block of ninety feet long, and nine in diameter.

At a distance this column is seen predominant over the city, and at sea serves as a signal for mariners. When near, it excites astonishment, mingled with awe; the spectator is never weary of admiring the beauty of the capital, the length of the shaft, or the grand simplicity of the pedestal.

We must not omit mentioning the manner by which some English masters of ships contrived to get to the top of it; they flew a kite over the pillar, in such a direction, that when the string was loosed, to let it fall, and the kite came to the ground, the string lay across the top of the pillar, by means of which they passed ropes over; and, making shrouds, the same as to the mast of a ship, they went up triumphantly, drinking a bowl of punch on the summit, and discovering that there had formerly been a pedestrian statue on it, a piece of the foot remaining.

Travellers, and men of literature, have made many fruitless attempts, to discover to what prince it was dedicated. The most intelligent have thought it could not be in honour of Pompey; since Strabo, and Diodorus Siculus, have not mentioned it; they therefore remained in doubt from which, says Savary, Abulseda might have relieved them. He calls it the column of Severus, and history informs us, this Emperor visited, and deserved well of its inhabitants. This column was a mark of their gratitude; the Greek inscription, half effaced, but visible on the western side, when the sun shines on it, was no doubt legible in the time of Abulfeda, and contained the name of Severus. Neither is this the sole monument erected to him, by the gratitude of the people of Alexandria. In the midst of the ruins of Antinoe, built by Adrian, is a magnificent column, the inscription on which still subsists, dedicated to Alexander Severus.

In its modern state, Alexandria is the emporium of a considerable commerce. It is the harbour for all commodities, exported from Egypt to the Mediterranean, except the rice of Damietta. The Europeans have establishments here, where factors dispose of our merchandize. Vessels are constantly to be met with from Marseilles, Leghorn, Venice, Ragusa, and the dominions of the Grand Signior; but it is dangerous to winter here. The new port, the only harbour for Europeans, is clogged up with sand; so that in stormy weather ships are liable to bulge: and the bottom being also rocky, the cables soon chase and part, one vessel then driving against a second, and that against a third, they are perhaps all lost. Of this there was a fatal instance, sixteen or eighteen years ago, when sixty-two vessels were dashed to pieces on the mole, in a gale of wind from the North-west.

The old port is not subject to this inconvenience; but the Turks admit no ships into it, except those of Mussulmen. It will perhaps be asked why they do not repair the new port? The answer is, in Turkey they destroy every thing, and repair nothing. The old harbour will be destroyed likewise, as the ballast of vessels has been continually thrown into it, for these last two hundred years.

At the extremity of one of the arms of the new port stood the famous Pharos, reckoned one of the wonders of the world; and which has nothing now to represent it, but a Turkish fort, built on the same spot, and probably out of its ruins.

In time of war Alexandria is of no importance; no fortification is to be seen; even the Pharos, with its lofty turrets, cannot be defended. A single Russian or Maltese frigate, would suffice to lay it in ashes; but the conquest would be of no value. A foreign power could not maintain itself there, as the country is without water. This must be brought from the Nile by the kalidj, or canal of twelve leagues; which supply of water would undoubtedly be cut off, were a foreign power to take possession of Alexandria.

It is the canal alone that connects Alexandria with Egypt; for, from its situation without the Delta, and the nature of the soil, it really belongs to the desarts of Africa, and we do not enter Egypt until we arrive at Rosetta; there the sands, peculiar to Africa, end: and a black, fat, and loamy soil, the distinguishing characteristic of Egypt, begins. There also, for the first, we behold the waters of the celebrated Nile, which, rolling between two steep banks, considerably resemble the Seine, between Auteuil and Passy. The woods of palm-trees on each side, the orchards, watered by its streams, the lemon, the orange, the banana, the peach, and other trees, by their perpetual verdure, render Rosetta astonishingly delightful.

Historians tell us, that Alexander's body was embalmed in this city, in a coffin of gold, which, as may be easily supposed, was taken away, and it was put into one of glass; being preserved therein so late as to the time of Augustus, who took a view of it in that state, adorned it with a gold crown, and wept over it.

Rosetta, says Savary, is one of the pleasantest towns in Egypt. It spreads along the western bank of the Nile; and is nearly a league in length, and one-fourth in width. No remarkable square is seen here; no street perfectly strait; but the houses, built with terraces, standing asunder, and kept in good repair, have a pleasing air of neatness and elegance. The only remarkable public edifices are the mosques; the lofty minarets of which are built in a light, bold stile; and produce a picturesque effect, in a town where all the roofs are flat, by throwing variety into the picture. Most of the houses have a prospect of the Nile and the Delta; a truly magnificent one! Vessels and boats, some rowing, some under sail, continually cover the river; while the tumult of the port, the mirth of the mariners, and their noisy music, present a scene ever moving, ever alive. The Delta, that immense garden, where the exhaustless earth is never weary of producing, affords an eternal view of harvests, vegetables, flowers, and fruits, in succession; the abundant variety of which, at once, gladdens the eye and the heart. Various species of cucumbers, delicious melons, the fig, the orange, the banana, the pomegranate, all grow here, all have an exquisite flavour.

North of the city are gardens, where citron, orange, date, and sycamore trees, are promiscuously planted; and the arbours they form, impenetrable to the sun's rays, by the mingling of the trees, together with the flowers scattered among them, render these groves most enchanting.

When the atmosphere is all on fire, when the big moisture courses down every member, when gasping man pants after cool air, with what ecstacy does he go and respire under these bowers, and beside the rivulet, by which they are watered! There the Turk, with his long jassmine pipe, wrought with amber, imagines himself transported into the garden of delight, which Mahomet promised: thoughtless in tranquil apathy, he smokes the sun down, void of desire, void of ambition. His calm passions never cast one curious look towards futurity; content with what he possesses, he neither invents, nor brings the inventions of others to perfection; his life to us seems a slumber, ours to him one continued state of intoxication. While we are ever pursuing happiness, which continually eludes our grasps, he peaceably enjoys the good which nature gives, without troubling himself concerning the morrow.

Here, in these gardens, the young Georgians, sold into slavery by barbarous parents, quit, with the veil which covers them, that decency they observe in public. Freed here from all constraint, they cause lascivious dances to be performed in their presence; sing tender songs, and relate tales and romances, which present an undisguised picture of their manners, and pleasures. Born in a temperate clime, they receive from nature a soul of energy, and tumultuous passions; brought afterwards into Egypt, the fire of the atmosphere, the perfume of the orange-flower, and the emanations of aromatic plants, voluptuously invade every sense; then does one sole care employ, one sole desire torment them; one only predominant want is felt; the violence of which is increased by the restraint under which they are kept.

Rosetta, says Savary, may well excite the curiosity of a European, who sees so many new objects, that he imagines himself transported into another world; men and nature, all he beholds is changed. A dead silence reigns throughout the city, uninterrupted by the noise of carriages; camels are the carriers here; nothing alters or disturbs the grave walk of the inhabitants; their long garments float down to their heels; the head is loaded with a heavy turban, or encircled with a shawl; they cut their hair off, and let their beards grow. Sashes are common to both sexes; the citizen is armed with a knife, the soldier with a sabre, and two pistols. The women of low rank, whose clothing consists of an ample blue shift, and long drawers, cover their faces with a bit of cloth, having holes opposite the eyes; the rich wear a large white veil, with a black silk mantle, enveloping the body, like a domino. A stranger scarcely dares look at them; to speak would be a crime; but these masks are liberal of their signs and oglings; and, as this is the only language they are permitted to use in public, it is more expressive, more copious, and in much higher perfection than in Europe; every thing is said, and wonderfully well understood, without opening the lips.

The country is as different from the neighbourhood of Paris, says Savary, and we may add of London, as is Rosetta from a town in France, or in England. An immense flat, without hill or mountain, intersected by innumerable canals; corn-fields, branching sycamores, whose unperishable wood preserves the mud-wall hut, into which the husbandman retires duding winter, for he sleeps under the shade in summer; date-trees in clusters, or scattered over the plain, the profuse fruit of which is nutritive, sweet and salutary; the cassia with fertile branches, decked in yellow flowers, and bearing a pod well known in pharmacy; orange and citron trees, unmutilated by the pruning knife, whose projecting odoriferous boughs form arbours impenetrable by the sun's rays; such are the objects of the Delta, and such its principal trees and shrubs. Winter does not rob them of their foliage; they are apparelled all the year, as if every month was May.

The rice-ground round Rosetta is known by the name Sultani, and is appropriated to the use and consumption of Constantinople. As soon as the rice is down, the stubble is torn up, the land slightly dressed, and barley is sown, which presently ripens. Those who prefer a crop of hay inundate the field, and sow it with lucern, which grows so fast, that in twenty days it is a foot and a half high, and so thick that its surface appears one solid verdure. It is three times cut before the season of transplanting the rice; thus the same field will either yield two crops of grain; one of rice and the other of barley; or four crops, one of rice and three of hay. This fecundity is, however, peculiar to the Delta; when the land lying lower than in the Thebais may be watered, all the year, by means of the canals and machines.

The principal wealth of this city flows from commerce. The transportation of foreign merchandize to Cairo, and of the productions of Egypt to the port of Alexandria, gives employment to a great number of mariners; their vessels are called scherms, a light kind of boats with lateen sails, and which having no decks are very hazardous; a gust of wind coming unexpectedly, turns them on their side, and they founder. The word scherm, in Arabic, expresses the swiftness with which these small vessels skim the waves. The Bogaz, for so they call the bar at the mouth of the Nile, and which is another Arabic word, descriptive of the agitation of the waves, is a dangerous shoal for these light boats. The waters here drive and struggle to find a passage into the sea; and, when the wind freshens, the waves running mountains high, form whirlpools, which engulph vessels. The Bogaz is shallow; and, in the extent of a league, there is seldom more than a passage of some few fathoms for the vessels, which is continually changing.

The bar of the Nile is totally closed, two months in the year, and the commerce of Alexandria interrupted; but were it to become totally impassable, and were all the shipping of Egypt to be swallowed up, the Ottoman government would not remove one foot of earth, from the canal of Faoua, to render it navigable. Committed to their care every thing perishes, nothing is repaired.

Damietta, larger and not less agreeable than Rosetta, forms a semi-circle on the eastern shore of the Nile, two leagues and a half from its mouth. Standing at one end of this crescent, the eye surveys its whole extent. It contains about eighty thousand inhabitants, has several squares, one of which is called Menshia. Bazars, filled with merchandize, okals or khans, as spacious as those of Cairo, under the porticos of which are Indian stuffs, silks from Mount Lebanon, sal ammoniac, and quantities of rice bespeak it a commercial place. The houses, especially those near the river, are very high; most of them have pleasant saloons, built on the terraces; in which charming places, open to every wind, the Turk, indolently seated on his sopha, passes his life in smoaking, viewing the sea, bounded by the horizon, the grand lake lying on the other side, and the Nile running between the two, which traverses a rich country. Various grand mosques, with high minarets, ornament the city. The public baths, faced with marble, are similar to those of Grand Cairo; the linen is clean, and the water very pure.

Multitudes of boats, and small vessels, incessantly fill the port of Damietta. The scherms serve to load and unload the ships that anchor in the road; others are coasting pilot-boats. The finest rice of Egypt is cultivated in the neighbouring plains; and its annual exportation amounts to between two and three hundred thousand pounds. There are likewise cloths, sal ammoniac, wheat, &c. Laws, ruinous to the country, prohibit the exportation of the latter; but they are evaded, and it is passed as rice. The Christians of Aleppo and Damascus, for many ages established here, carry on the principal trade: they are suffered to grow rich by Turkish indolence, which contents itself with occasional extortions. Exportation of rice is forbidden; but by arrangements advantageous to the receiver of the customs, the people of Provence annually load several ships. The Bogaz prevents them from entering the Nile, and their cargoes are brought by boats, which practice is productive of innumerable vexations and abuses. The rice of the best quality, which departs in the evening for the ship, seldom arrives there, but an inferior sort is substituted, during the night. The captains of Marseilles, aware of these tricks, but unable to prevent them, endeavour to repel fraud by fraud, and traffic becomes a kind of mutual robbery. The thing most disadvantageous to the commerce of Damietta is, its defective harbours; the road, where vessels lie, being exposed, every gale that rises the captains are obliged to slip their cables, and take refuge at Cyprus, or keep the open sea. By cutting a canal of half a league only, it would be easy to give ships free entrance into the Nile, which is deep; and this small expence would render Damietta a fine harbour.

The flip of land where this city is built, is only from two to six miles wide. Rivulets intersect it in every direction, and render it the most fruitful part of Egypt. The rice, in common years, yields eighty bushels for one; and other products are in the same proportion. Here nature, eminently and profusely displaying her riches and pomp, presents, the year round, flowers, fruits and harvests. She withers not in winter, and fades not in summer. She is neither scorched nor frozen. The thermometer only varies from the 29th above freezing, to the 24th. This happy temperature Damietta owes to the vast quantities of water by which it is surrounded. The thermometer rises twelve degrees higher at Grand Cairo. Verdure is no where so fresh. Trees no where so loaded with fruit. The banks, among the rice-fields, bear several species of reeds, some of which grow very high; among them is the calamus in abundance, with which the Orientals write. Its small stalk bears long narrow leaves, gracefully pendent and pliant branches, bedecked with white flowers. Here may be seen the papyrus, in quantities, the paper of the ancient Egyptians. The present scarcity of the papyrus, in Egypt, is owing to the avidity of the publicans, who will only suffer it to grow in a few places, that they may raise the price. Of this Strabo complains; and the evil, it seems, still continues. Savary observes it is only to be seen round Damietta, and the lake Menzala; and that most travellers, who have been there, have not mentioned it; some, less circumspect, have denied its existence, and propagated sables on the subject. This triangular rush, eight or nine feet high, and an inch thick, bears a lanigerous tuft. The lotus also here raises its proud stalk above the water, and appears the king of aquatic plants. The inland ponds and canals abound with this stately flower, which yields a most agreeable odour.

Damietta has many villages in its environs; most of them have manufactories, where the finest Egyptian cloth is made, particularly napkins; much in request: at the ends of which is silk fringe. They are brought to table, especially, on visits of ceremony; the slave presents one to wipe the mouth after drinking sherbet, or eating confectionary, served on a silver plate. Round these villages usually are small woods, where the trees, planted promiscuously, have an uncommon, and picturesque effect.

A mile South-west of the town is an orange-grove, to which the inhabitants resort, where the walks are made straight; and this is the only place where art has any way aided nature; no where else are the trees planted in rows. No words can express the pleasure of breathing the cool, and perfumed air of these delightful shades. The unmutilated trees are above thirty feet high, and their intermingled branches, and thick foliage, all in bloom, from top to bottom, wholly exclude the sun's rays. Each orange-tree is a vast nosegay, the flowers of which almost conceal the leaves, forming together the most beautiful canopy, ever beheld. There is a small rivulet beside each row, and twice a day a reservoir is opened, by which the trees are watered. It is intoxication of pleasure to walk here at noon; and never, says Savary, did I so foricbly feel all the delicious enjoyments, that odours and aromatics can inspire.

At one end of this walk is a canal full of the papyrus. Entering, on the left, stands the gardener's hut, and a grove of citron and palm trees, planted so near each other as scarce to grant admission. This place, enclosed by ditches and pallisadoes, is the asylum of mystery, where the handsomest of the Turkish women occasionally come to breathe, say they, balsamic sweetness beneath these shades.

We shall conclude this account of Damietta with a tale related by Savary, to prove that incidents, similar to those of the times of Jacob, are still renewed in Egypt. A farmer, near Damascus, reduced to such distress as to be obliged to part with his implements of husbandry, led by the invisible hand of Providence, as formerly Tobias was by the angel, while he bargained for corn, lately arrived from Damietta. He heard speak of the success of Mourad Bey, who had entered Grand Cairo victorious, and in triumph. The shape, character and origin of the warrior were described, and how he had risen from slavery to supreme power. The astonished farmer found the description accorded with a son, who had been stolen from him at twelve years old; hope palpitated in his heart; he hastened home with his provisions, told his family what he had heard, and determined immediately to depart for Egypt. His weeping wife and sons offered up prayers for his safe return. Going to the port of Alexandretta, he embarked there, and came to Damietta. One continued fear tormented him; his son, forsaking the religion of his ancestors, had embraced Mahometanism; and now, surrounded as he was with splendor, would he acknowledge his parents? The thought lay heavy on his heart; yet the wish to snatch his family from all the horrors of famine, the hope of finding a long lamented son, gave him fortitude. He continued his journey, came to the capital, repaired to the palace of Mourad, applied to the officers of the prince, and most ardently solicited admission. His dress and appearance bespoke poverty and misfortunes, and were poor recommendations; but his great age, so respectable in the East, pleaded in his behalf. One of the attendants went to the bey, and told him an aged man, apparently miserable, requested an audience. Let him enter, replied Mourad, and the farmer proceeded, with trembling steps, over the rich carpet, which bespread the hall of the divan, and approached the bey, who reclined on a sopha embroidered with silk and gold. Crowding sensations deprived him of the use of speech; at last, after attentively looking, the voice of nature vanquishing fear, he fell; and, embracing his knees, exclaimed, You are my son! The bey raised him, endeavoured to recollect, and, after finding him to be his father, made him sit down by his side, and caressed him most affectionately. The first gush of nature over, the fire described in what deplorable state he had left his mother, and brethren, whom the prince proposed to send for, and, with them, divide his riches and power; if they would embrace Islanism. This the generous Christian had foreseen; and, fearing youth might be dazzled, took not one of his sons with him. He therefore firmly rejected Mourad's offer, and even remonstrated with him, on his own change of religion. The bey finding his father determined, and that his family's distress demanded immediate succour, sent him back to Syria, with a large sum of money, and a vessel loaded with corn. The happy husbandman immedidiately returned to the plains of Damascus, where his arrival banished misery and tears from his homely roof, and brought joy, ease and festivity.—This history greatly resembles that of Joseph; and would more, perhaps, did we know every incident attending it.

INTERVIEW between PRINCE MOURAD and his FATHER.

CHAP. V. Of the different Inhabitants.

AMID those revolutions which all nations have experienced, there are few countries which have preserved their original, and primitive inhabitants pure, and unmixed. The same desire which leads individuals to encroach on each other's property, has excited nations one against another; the consequence of which has been, to introduce into states a foreign conqueror, who has despoiled the vanquished nation of the domain, granted them by nature.

Such has been the case with Egypt: deprived three-and-twenty centuries ago, of her natural proprietors, she has seen her fertile fields, successively, a prey to the Persians, the Macedonians, the Romans, the Greeks, the Arabs, the Georgians, and, at length, the race of Tartars, distinguished by the name of Ottoman Turks. Among so many nations, several of them have left vestiges of their transient possession: but as they have been blended in succession, they have been so consounded, as to render it very difficult to discriminate their respective characters.

The real native Egyptians, according to Savary, are the Copts; called so from Cophtos, once a famous city in the Thebais; or from cobtos, cut; because they have always preserved the use of circumcision. These only are the descendants of the ancient Egyptians; and who, more than two hundred years, subjected by foreign powers, have lost the genius and science of their forefathers; though they have preserved their customs, and the ancient vulgar tongue.

The knowledge transmitted from father to son, of all arable lands, their value and extent, occasions them to be chosen clerks to the beys; and, that they may conceal their accounts from these lords, most of them are written in Coptic. They do not, however, perfectly understand the language; but, as their missals, and the various other works they possess, have an Arabic language, their ancient language is not lost; and in some future time it may, perhaps, supply the learned with means of dispelling the obscurity of the first ages, and removing the veil from mysterious hieroglyphics.

The Copts embraced Christianity at its birth; and Amrou, having conquered Egypt, permitted them the free exercise of the Christian religion; since when they have even had churches, priests, bishops, and a patriarch, whose residence is at Grand Cairo. Numerous superstitious practices, received from their ancestors, are mingled in their worship; but they are mild, humane and hospitable. Paternal tenderness and filial love constitute their domestic happiness, where every tie of blood is cherished and honoured. Inland trade, the art of hatching eggs and raising bees, are almost the whole of their knowledge. They often enrich themselves by the administrations entrusted to them; but they seldom enjoy tranquility, the fruits of their labours. The bey, who beholds them opulent, often strips them of their riches, without mercy. Such oppressions do not excite revolt; their want of energy keeps them enchained in poverty and subjection, which they support without murmuring.

After the Copts, the Arabs are the most ancient people of Egypt, where they twice have reigned. Their first dominion was in the remote ages of antiquity. The second began in the seventh, and ended in the twelfth century. Two-thirds of the present inhabitants are Arabs; the manners of whom differ according to their mode of life. Those who become husbandmen are governed by their foreign masters, and present a striking example to philosophers, of the influence of laws over men. Beneath a tyrannical government, they have lost that good faith, which characterizes their nation. They take part in their master's quarrels. Villages arm against villages, and towns against towns; and, during the revolutions, continually reviving at Grand Cairo, the country presents a frightful scene of carnage and horror. It is these degenerate Arabs, who render the navigation of the Nile exceedingly dangerous, attack boats in the dark, massacre passengers, seize their effects, and commit every kind of outrage.

Another division of the Arabs, who may be called husbandmen, are governed by their sheiks, who possess various principalities in the Thebais. Now, as heretofore, they are the judge, the pontiff, and the sovereign of their people; yet governing more like fathers of families, than kings. These venerable patriarchs usually take their meals at the doors of their houses, or tents, inviting all comers: rising from table they cry aloud, Whoever is hungry, let him in the name of God, come and eat, which is not a barren form; any man, whoever he may be, has a right to sit down, and feed on what he finds.

These Arabs are the best of people; ignorant of the vices of polished nations, incapable of disguise, they know neither falshood nor knavery. Haughty and generous, they repel insult by arms, and never employ treachery; hospitality is sacred among them, their houses and tents are open to travellers of all religions, and their guests are treated with as much respect, and affection as their own kindred. Of their honesty some idea may be formed, by the following fact, says Savary, to which I was a witness. An Arab sheik had long annually come to the district of the French, where he took up goods on credit, of a merchant; still coming the following year, at the same time, bringing the money, and taking fresh merchandize. Sickness one year prevented him from coming himself, at the usual time; but he sent his son, with the money, and continued a trade, equally honourable to both nations.

A third species of Arabs is comprized under the general name of Bedouai; of whom we have already given some account. They are divided into tribes, meddle not with agriculture, and feed on barley, dates, and the flesh and milk of their herds, which they drive into the valleys, where they find water and pasturage. Masters of the desarts, they are the enemies of all caravans, attack them wherever they can find them, and force them either to fight, or pay tribute. If the resistance be too powerful, they retreat without fear of pursuit; if they conquer, they pillage every one, divide the spoil, but never, as we have before remarked, kill any one, unless to revenge the death of their companions.

After the miseries M. de S. Germain underwent, crossing Suez, he came expiring to the tent of a Bedouin, to whose generous care he owed his life; and who conducted him to Cairo, as soon as his health was recovered. M. Pagés fled over the sands of Arabia Deserta, with seven Arabs; he had lost his water and provisions, and, falling from his camel, was in danger of being sacrificed to the resentment of an insulted tribe. One of his companions allighted, and, at the risk of his life, took him up behind him, till they came to a place of safety. The whole provision of the Arabs, during the journey, was a barley cake a day, and that not a large one. This they divided into eight portions; and the one they gave the stranger was always twice as much as their own.

Of the misfortunes attending M. de S. Germain, Volney has given a more particular relation. The caravan he accompanied, it appears, was composed of English officers and passengers, who had landed from two vessels at Suez, in their way to Europe by Cairo. The Bedouin Arabs of Tor, informed that their passengers were richly laden, resolved to plunder them, and attacked them five leagues from Suez. The Europeans, stripped stark naked, and dispersed by fear, separated into two parties. Some returned to Suez; the remainder, to the number of seven, thinking they could reach Cairo, pushed forward into the desart. Fatigue, thirst, hunger, and the heat of the sun, destroyed them, one after the other. M. de S. Germain alone survived all these horrors. During three days, and two nights, he wandered in this bare and sandy desart, frozen at night by the North wind, (for it was in the month of January) and burnt by the sun during the day, without any other shade but a single bush, into which he thrust his head among the thorns; or any other drink but his own urine. At length, on the third day, perceiving the water of Berket-el-Hadj, he strove to make toward it; but he had already fallen three times, from weakness, and would have remained where he last fell, but for an Arab, mounted on a camel, who saw him at a great distance. This charitable man conveyed him to his dwelling, and took care of him for three days, with the utmost humanity. At the expiration of that time he was conveyed to Cairo, where he arrived in a most deplorable condition. His body was one entire wound, his breath cadaverous, and he had scarcely a spark of life remaining. By dint of great care and attention, he was at last restored to health. Much was said, at the time, of the barbarity of the Arabs, who notwithstanding killed no one. At present, says Volney, we may venture to blame the imprudence of the Europeans, who conducted themselves like madmen throughout the whole affair. So great was the discord among them, and they had carried their negligence so far, as not to have a single pistol fit for use. All their arms were at the bottom of their chests. Besides, it appears that the Arabs did not act merely from their usual motives; well-informed persons assert, that the affair was transacted at Constantinople, by the English East India Company's Agents; who saw, with a jealous eye, individuals entering into a competition with them for the traffic of Bengal; and what has passed in the course of enquiries into the event, has proved the truth of the assertion.

An excessive love of liberty occasions them to prefer the dreary wilderness, where they lived independent, to the rich plains of Egypt, where they must live as slaves. Government has several times offered them lands, which they have constantly refused; and this independent spirit, so well pourtrayed in the sacred scriptures, they have inviolably preserved from the time of Ishmael, their father. Liberty has so many charms, that, to obtain it, they firmly support hunger, thirst, and the scorching sun. Sometimes humbled, but never enslaved, they have braved all the powers of the earth; and shook off the chain, in which other nations have alternately been bound. The Romans, masters of the world, lost the armies they sent to conquer their country. The Egyptians, Persians and Ottomans, never could subdue them. Thus this proud people is the sole nation, which has preserved that haughtiness of character, generosity, and inviolable fidelity, which so highly honour humanity. Deceit and perjury they know not. Ignorant of, though not despising, science; sound reason, uprightness and elevation of soul, distinguish them from all the Orientals. These are the Arabs which the genius of a single man united, to the destruction of the thrones, the conquering of kingdoms, and the imposing of laws on two-thirds of the earth. Their conquests are lost, but their character, religion, and manners are preserved.

Except the Copts and Arabs, the Mograbians, or Western Mahometans, are the most numerous inhabitants of Egypt; they devote themselves, some to trade, and some to arms. Their nation ought not to be judged by the individuals of Grand Cairo: those who become soldiers are adventurers, most of them guilty of crimes, and banished from their country by the fear of justice. These merciless, faithless, lawless soldiers, abandon themselves to every excess, and always sell themselves to that Bey, who is the best bidder.

The number of real Turks here, is not great, exclusive of the Janissaries and Assabs; who, abusing their power, pillage the Egyptians, and foreigners, and employ every means to amass great riches. Like the Mograbians, they are neither disciplined, understand the art of gunnery, nor would it be possible for them to oppose the military science of Europeans.

The Syrian Christians, Greeks, and Jews, addict themselves entirely to commerce, exchange, and the mechanic arts. Their ductile cunning, promotes them occasionally to be commissioners of the customs, and receivers of the revenue in Egypt; but their honesty may not be depended on, and their arts should always be watched. Having obtained power, they employ it to oppress European merchants, invent exactions, and shackle their commerce. Many of them are goldsmiths, and work in gold, silver, and jewellery, with tolerable skill. Their performances in fillagree are valuable. Several of them have established manufactories of light stuffs, made from Bengal cotton, and the silk of Syria, which are purchased by the natives. Though well woven, these stuffs fail in the dye, the colour being neither so vivid, nor so unfading as those of India, which must be attributed to the ignorance of the artists; for Egypt produces excellent indigo, carthamus, and various dyes. Their linen cloths have the same defect. Egyptian flax, formerly so renowned for its excellence, is still the same; but, the spinners are so bad, that their linen is very coarse.

The amount of these inhabitants, so different in their manners, religion, and nations, is near four millions; these are governed and kept in order, by eight thousand Mamluks. A matter not surprising, if we recollect, that under Augustus, three cohorts, amounting to about three thousand men, were sufficient to guard the Thebais, or Upper Egypt; as Strabo informs us, who, was an ocular witness of the fact.

CHAP. VI. Of their Character, Private Life, Food, Occupations, Amusements.

LIFE, in the capital of Egypt, says Savary, is rather passive, than active. Nine months in the year, the body is oppressed by heat; and the soul, in a state of apathy, sighs after calm tranquility. Inaction, under a temperate clime, is painful; here repose is enjoyment. The most frequent salutation at meeting, or parting, is, peace be with you. Effeminate indolence is born with the Egyptian, grows with his growth, and descends with him to the grave. It is the vice of the climate; it influences his inclinations, and governs his actions. The sofa, therefore, is the most luxurious piece of furniture in an apartment. Their gardens have charming arbours, but no walks. The European, born under a varying sky, is active, impatient, and agitated, like the atmosphere in which he lives; while the Egyptian, feeling the same heat, and the same sensation, two thirds of the year, is idle, solemn, and patient.

He rises with the sun to enjoy the morning air; purifies himself, and repeats the appointed prayer. His pipe and coffee are brought him, and be reclines at his ease on his sofa. Slaves, with their arms crossed, remain silent at the farther end of the chamber, with their eyes fixed on him, seeking to anticipate his wants. His children standing in his presence, unless he permits them to be seated, preserve every appearance of tenderness and respect: he gravely caresses them, gives them his blessing, and sends them back to the harem.

Breakfast ended, he transacts the business of his trade, or office; and as to disputes, they are few, among a people where the name of attorney is unknown; and where each man is his own pleader.

When visitors come, they are received without many compliments, but in an endearing manner. His equals are seated cross-legged, beside him; his inferiors kneel, and fit upon their hams. People of distinction, are placed on a raised sofa. This is nearly the general custom throughout Turkey, and seems to be the custom, not only of the present, but of ancient times. Thus, according to Virgil, Aeneas in the palace of Dido, had the place of honour; while, seated on a raised bed, he related to the queen, the burning of Troy. When every person is seated, the slaves bring pipes and coffee, and set the perfume brasier in the middle of the chamber, and afterwards present sweetmeats and sherbet.

The tobacco, smoaked in Egypt, is brought from Syria, in leaf, and cut by them into long filaments; it is not so acrid as that of America; and, to render it more agreeable, they mix with it the odorous wood of aloes. Their pipes are usually of jasmin, the end garnished with amber, and often enriched with precious stones: they are very long; the vapour imbibed, is therefore very mild. The Orientals pretend, it agreeably irritates the palate, while it gratifies the smell. Some of their pipes are fifteen feet long.

When the visit is almost ended, a slave, bearing a silver plate, in which essences are burning, goes round to the company; and each, in turn, perfumes his beard, and sprinkles rose-water on his head and hands. Thus, the ancient custom of perfuming the head and beard; as sung by the royal prophet, "Like the precious ointment upon the head, that ran down upon the beard, even upon Aaron's beard," is still continued. Anacreon, the father of the festive ode, and the poet of the graces, incessantly repeats, "I delight to sprinkle my body with precious perfumes, and crown my head with roses."

About noon, the table is prepared, and the viands brought in a large tray of tinned copper; and though in no great variety, yet always in great plenty. In the centre, is a mountain of rice cooked with poultry, and highly seasoned with spice and saffron. Round this are hashed meats, pigeons, stuffed cucumbers, delicious melons and fruits. The roast meats are cut small, laid over with the fat of the animal, seasoned with salt, spitted, and done on the coals; they are tender and succulent. The guests seat themselves on a carpet, round the table; a slave brings water in one hand, and a bason in the other, to wash. This is an indispensable ceremony, where each person puts his hand in the dish, and where the use of forks is unknown; it is repeated when the meal is ended. These customs of the East, appear to be very ancient.

Menelaus, and the beauteous Helen, having loaded Telemachus, and Pisistratus, with gifts, gave them a hospitable banquet.

And now when through the royal dome they pass'd,

High on a throne the king each stranger plac'd.

A golden ewer, th' attendant damsel brings,

Replete with water, from the crystal springs.

With copious streams, the shining vase supplies,

A silver laver of capacious size.

They wash. The tables in fair order spread,

The glitt'ring cannisters are crown'd with bread!

Viands of various kinds, allure the taste

Of choicest sort, and savour rich repast!

ODYS. XV.

The manner, in which the son of Thetis received the Greek deputies, very much resembles that in which the Egyptians treat their guests.

After dinner, the Egyptians retire to the harem, where they flumber some hours, amidst their wives and children. A commodious and agreeable place of repose is extreme luxury to them. Thus, Mahomet, who neglected nothing that might seduce, tells his followers, that the inhabitants of Paradise enjoy the sweets of repose, and have a place most delightful to sleep in at neon.

The poor having neither sofa nor harem, lie down on the mat on which they have dined. Thus, Jesus Christ, at the last supper, suffered his beloved disciple to repose his head upon his bosom.

It is customary in the evening to go on the water, or breathe the fresh air of the banks of the Nile, beneath the orange and sycamore-trees. An hour after sun-set, supper is served up, consisting of rice, poultry, vegetables, and fruits, which are very salutary during the heats: the stomach requires these, and would reject more solid food. Moderation in eating, is the virtue of the climate.

Such is the ordinary life of the Egyptians. Our shews, plays, and pleasures are to them unknown; a monotony, which, to an European would be death, is delight to an Egyptian. Their days are past in repeating the same thing, in following the same customs, without a wish or thought beyond. The lower class of people, however, are very fond of listening to the tales and tricks of conjurors.

Among the other diversions, by which the jugglers delude the common people out of their money, is that of leading about dancing camels. These animals are taught to dance when young, by being brought upon a heated floor, which gives them a good deal of pain, and causes them to lift up their legs as if they were dancing, while they keep beating time with a drum; and this practice they continue for about half a year; after which time, when the camel hears the noise of a drum, he strikes into a dance. The fortune-tellers, have likewise a trick of breeding up little birds, which, when any person applies to them to have his fortune told, bring him a scrip of paper, in which his future destiny is written.

The Egyptians, as their name imports, had their origin in this country. They are called by the Turks, Zinganees, from Zinganeus, their leader; who, with a great many Egyptians, retired into the desarts, when sultan Selim took Egypt from the Mamluks; where they increased to so formidable a number, making incursions, from time to time, in the plain, that the Turks were glad to enter into a treaty with them; by which it was agreed, they should lay down their arms, and be allowed the same privileges as other subjects, in exercising any trade, or means of livelihood. But the Zinganees, having been accustomed to a vagabond wandering life, and lost all ideas of religion, were averse to change their mode of living, and still continued to follow their former course of rapine and plunder. And the Turks, finding they could not be reclaimed, were obliged to banish them the country; of course, a power was given to any person to kill a Zinganee; or make a slave of him, if discovered in the country after a limited time. This law was so well enforced, that a Zinganee was not to be seen in Egypt for many years after. They had agreed to disperse themselves, in small parties, all over the world; and, being natives of Egypt, a country where the occult sciences, or black art, as it was called, had, in the opinion of credulous people, risen to great perfection, they thought they could not pitch upon a more effectual means of gaining subsistence; and, at the same time, indulge their wandering way of life, than by setting up for fortune-tellers.

Egypt, however, as well as Italy, says Savary, has her improvisatore, called Almai, or learned; which title they obtain, by being more educated than other women. They form a class very famous in the country; to be admitted into which, it is necessary to possess a fine voice, eloquence, the rules of grammar, and be able to compose and sing extempore verses, adapted to the occasion.

ALMAI, or EGYPTIAN DANCING GIRLS.

The almai, know all new songs by rote; their memory is stored with the best tales; they are present at all festivals, and are the chief ornament of banquets. They place them in a raised orchestra, or pulpit, where they sing during the feast; after which, they descend, and form dances, which no w•y resembles ours. They are pantomimes, that represent the common incidents of life. Love is their usual subject. The suppleness of their dancers' bodies, is inconceivable; and the flexibility of their features, which take impressions of the parts they play at will, is astonishing. The indecency of their attitudes is often excessive; each look, each gesture, speaks; and, in a manner so forcible, as not possibly to be misunderstood. They throw aside modesty with their veils When they begin to dance, a long and very light silk robe floats on the ground, negligently girded by a sash: long black hair, perfumed, and in tresses, descends over their shoulders; the shift, transparent as gauze, scarcely conceals the skin: as the act on proceeds, the various forms and contours that the body can assume, seem progressive; the sound of musica instruments regulates their steps Words adap••d to such like scenes inflame them still more, until they appear intoxicated, and become frantic bacc•ants. Forgetting all reserve, they then abandon themselves to the disorder of their senses; while an indelicate people, who wish nothing should be left to the imagination, redouble their applauses.

[See the plate, which exhibits a view of the pyramids.]

These almai, are admitted into all harems; where they teach the women the new airs, recount amorous tales, and recite poems in their presence, which are interesting, by being pictures of their own manners. They teach them the mysteries of their art, and instruct them in lascivious dances. The minds of these women are cultivated, their conversation is agreeable, they speak their language with purity; and habitually addicting themselves to poetry, learn the most winning and sonorous modes of expression. Their recital is very graceful; when they sing, nature is their only guide. Some of their airs are light and gay; but their excellence is mostly seen in the pathetic. When they rehearse a tale, in the manner of the ancient tragic ballad, by dwelling upon affecting and plaintive tones, they inspire melancholy; which insensibly augments, till it melts into tears. The very Turks, enemies as they are to the arts, pass whole nights in listening to them. Two people sing together occasionally; but, like their orchestra, they are always in unison. Accompaniments in music, are only for enlightened nations; who, while melody charms the ear, wish to have the mind employed by a just and inventive modulation.

The Israelites, to whom Egyptian manners, by long dwelling in Egypt, were become natural, had also their almai. At Jerusalem, as at Cairo, they gave the women lessons. St. Mark, relates a fact, which proves the power of the Oriental dance over the heart of man. He tells us, that Herod was so pleased with his daughter's dancing on some great festival, as to bid her ask any favour of him she thought proper, and that he would grant it; upon which, at the desire of her mother, she requested the head of John the Baptist, which was immediately brought her in a charger.

The almai, are present at marriage ceremonies, and precede the bride, playing on instruments. They also accompany funerals, at which they sing dirges, utter groans and lamentations, and imitate every mark of grief and despair. Their price is high, and they seldom attend any but wealthy people, and men of high rank.

I was invited, says Savary, to a splendid supper, given by a rich Venetian merchant, to the receiver-general of the finances of Egypt. The almai sung various airs, during the banquet; and afterwards the praises of the principal guests. The most pleasing part of this performance, was an ingenious allegory, in which Cupid was the supposed interlocutor. There was a play after supper, and handfuls of sequins were sent to the singers. This festival, brought them at least fifty guineas: they are not, however, always so well paid.

The common people have always their almai, who are a second order of these women, imitators of the first; but have neither their elegance, grace, or knowledge. They are seen every where; the public squares and walks, round Grand Cairo, abound with them; the populace require ideas to be conveyed with still less disguise; decency will not permit the licentiousness of their motions, and postures to be described; of which no idea can be formed but by seeing them. The Indian Bayadieres, are exemplarily modest, when compared to the dancing girls of the Egyptians. This is the principle diversion of these people, and one in which they take great delight.

Rooke, describing a magnificent fete, given by one of the richest merchants in Cairo, in celebration of his son's return from India, and to which he was invited to partake, says, his company was very numerous, consisting of three or four hundred Turks, who were all sitting on sofa's and benches, smoking their long pipes; the room in which they were assembled, was a spacious and lofty hall; in the centre of which was a band of music, composed of five Turkish instruments, and some vocal performers; as there were no ladies in the assembly, it was not the most lively party in the world; but, being new to me, was for that reason entertaining.

Being a stranger, I was a kind of sight to them, and they asked me numberless questions; at the same time being extremely civil, and several of them as a compliment, taking their pipes out of their mouths, and offering them to me to smoke; although the indelicacy of this custom was somewhat disgusting, yet, in conformity to their manners, I took their pipes, smoked two or three whiffs and returned them. They look upon it as the most civil thing they can do, to a stranger, or visitor, to offer him the dish of coffee they themselves are sipping, or the pipe they are smoking, which it would be the height of ill manners in any one to refuse. Our supper was served at twelve o'clock, and consisted of sweetmeats, pastry, and sherbets, served on silver waiters, placed on the carpet, around which we formed ourselves in different parties, of five or six in each: we did not continue long at table, and immediately; as our repast was finished, the company broke up.

Among other amusements, in which the people of Grand Cairo take great delight, are the tricks of apes; great numbers of which are seen in the streets. They are brought by the Arabs from Mecca, who teach them different anticks for diversion. The Arabs being naturally inclined to buffoonery, their genius bears no small resemblance to the instinct of apes, and affords much amusement to those who accompany their caravans. Among other droll stories of the cunning and sagacity of these animals, the following is related from Le Brun.

An ape, kept by one of the Arabs, used to remain in the kitchen while the victuals were dressing, to prevent the hawks from stealing any thing away. Hawks are very numerous in these countries, and collect together on the tops of houses, in order to snatch up whatever they see within their reach. The chimnies being very low, and very wide, enables them to dive down, and carry off any provisions that may be lying on the hearth. It happened one day that this Arab, having put a piece of meat into the pot, went out, and not returning again soon, it boiled over, and the meat remained uncovered. A hawk, who was on the look out, upon the top of the chimney, perceiving this, was very desirous of the meat; and flying down, ventured to seize upon it, and carried it up the chimney. The ape, who saw himself tricked, cast a very sorrowful look up the chimney; and, foreseeing the ill usage he should meet with from his master, endeavoured to avoid the storm by an artifice of his own. He argued, therefore, with himself in this manner: "The hawk that has done me this injury, after he has devoured his prey, will, no doubt, return to see if there be any thing more left for him." And the fire being out, he clapped himself in the pot, and turning his bare buttocks upwards, thought the hawk might take him for another piece of flesh. In short, the hawk being returned, and looking from the top of the chimney, stooped down on what he saw in the pot; and the ape, who was on the catch, turning himself round very dexterously, seized on the falcon, chopped off his head, and put him into the pot. The Arab, on returning home, went to look at the meat he had put on the fire; and, perceiving the metamorphosis, looked very angrily on the ape. But this creature making a leap, took the hawk out of the pot, clapped himself into it, in the same posture he had done at first, and shewed by several gestures, that the hawk had taken away the meat, and the manner in which he surprised him, and put him into the pot. From this one instance, it is easy to conceive how many stories of the like nature, these creatures would furnish, and to which the Italian proverb is very applicable: si non é vero, é ben trovato; i. e. if not true, it is wellinvented.

Having now described the mode of life that the men lead, we will endeavour to give a general idea of female manners in this country. In Europe, women act parts of great consequence, and often reign sovereigns on the world's vast theatre. How different in Egypt, where they are bowed down by the fetters of slavery, condemned to servitude, and have no influence in public affairs. The Egyptians never even mention their wives in conversation; or, if obliged to speak of them, they say the mother of such a person, the mistress of the house, &c. Good manners will not permit the visitor to ask; How does your wife do, Sir? But in imitation of their reserve, it is necessary to say, How does the mother of such a person do? And even this they think an insult, unless asked by a kinsman, or an intimate friend.

Subject to the immutable laws by which custom governs the East, the women do not associate with men; not even at table, where the union of sexes produces mirth and wit, and makes food sweet. When the great dine with one of their wives, she is previously informed, prepares the apartment accordingly, perfumes it with precious essences, procures the most delicate viands, and receives her lord with the utmost attention and respect. Among the common people, the women usually stand or sit in the corner of the room, while the husband dines; often hold the bason for him to wash, and serve him at table. Customs like these, which the Europeans rightly call barbarous, and exclaim against, appear so natural here, that they do not suspect it can be otherwise elsewhere. Such is the power of habit over man. What has been for ages, he supposes, a law of nature.

I lately dined with an Italian, says Savary, who had married an Egyptian woman, and having lived there long, assumed their habits. His wife and sister-in-law stood in my presence; and it was with difficulty I prevailed on them to sit at table with us, where they were extremely timid and disconcerted.

The women in Egypt overlook their houshold, and do not think themselves debased, by preparing themselves their own food, and that of their husbands. Former customs still subsisting, render their cares duties. Thus, Sarah hastened to bake cakes upon the hearth, when angels visited Abraham, who performed the rights of hospitality. Sarah likewise, who prepared the dinner for Abraham and his guests, sat not at table, but remained in her tent.

Though thus employed, the Egyptian women have much leisure, which they spend among their slaves; embroidering sashes, making veils, tracing designs to decorate their sofas, and in spinning. Such Homer painted the women of his time. Labour has also its relaxations; pleasure is not banished the harem. Chearful and passionate songs are accompanied by the slaves, with the tambour de basque and with castanets. Sometimes the almai come to enliven the scene with their dances, and affecting recitals, and by relating amorous romances; and, at the close of the day, there is an amorous repast, in which exquisite fruits and perfumes are served with profusion. Thus do they endeavour to charm away the dulness of captivity.

Not that they are wholly prisoners; once or twice a week they are permitted to go to the bath, and visit female relations and friends. To bewail the dead, is likewise a duty they are allowed to perform. I have often seen distracted mothers round Cairo, says Savary, reciting funeral hymns, over the tombs they had bestrewed with odoriferous plants. Thus, Hecuba and Andromache lamented over the body of Hector; and thus, Fatima and Sophia wept over Mahomet. We will here insert the complaint of Fatima, the daughther of Mahomet; that of Andromache, may be seen in the twenty-fourth book of Homer's Iliad.

FATIMA.

"Oh my father! Minister of the most high! Prophet of the God of mercy! Hast thou left us and art gone? With thee divine revelation is departed also! The angel Gabriel has taken his flight, he has flown to the higher heavens! Hear my last prayer, thou Power supreme; hasten to unite my soul to his; let me behold his face; deprive me not of the fruit of his righteousness, nor of his intercession at the day of judgment!

Then, taking a little of the dust from the coffin, and putting it to her face, she adds,

"Who, having smelt the dust of his tomb, can ever find odour in the most exquisite perfumes? Alas! every agreeable sensation is extinct in my heart! The clouds of sorrow envelop me, and will change the brightness of day, to the darkness of night!"

This custom was not unknown to the Romans; they had their funeral urns strewed with cypress. How charmingly does the elegant Horace shed flowers over that of Quinctilius! How affecting, how passionate, is the ode he addresses to Virgil, on the death of their common friend! Among European nations, where ties of kindred are much relaxed, they rid themselves as much as possible, of the religious duties which ancient piety paid the dead; but the reason why we die unregretted is, because we have had the misfortune to live unbeloved.

The Egyptian women receive each others visits very affectionately; when a lady enters the harem, the mistress rises, takes her hand, presses it to her bosom, kisses her, and makes her sit down by her side; a slave hastens to take her black mantle; she is entreated to be at ease, quits her veil and her outward garment, and discovers a floating robe, tied round the waist with a sash, which perfectly displays her shape. She then receives compliments according to their manners. "Why, my mother, or my sister, have you been so long absent? We sighed to see you! Your presence is an honour to our house; it is the happiness of our lives!" Such titles as madam, miss, mistress, are unknown in Egypt. A mother, advanced in years, is called mother; when young, sister; and if a girl, daughter of the house.

Slaves present coffee, sherbet, and confectionary; they laugh, talk, and play; a large dish is placed on the sofa, on which are oranges, pomegranates, bananas, and excellent melons. Water, and rose-water, mixed, are brought in an ewer, and with them a silver bason to wash the hands, and loud glee and conversation season the repast. The chamber is perfumed by wood of aloes in a brazier; and the slaves afterwards dance to the sound of cymbals, with whom the mistresses often mingle. At parting, they several times repeat, God keep you in health! Heaven grant you a numerous offspring! Heaven preserve your children; the delight and glory of your family! These wishes, very ancient in the East, are found often in the holy scriptures.

While a visitor is in the harem, the husband must not enter; it is the asylum of hospitality, and cannot be violated without fatal consequences; a cherished right which the Egyptian women carefully maintain, being interested in its preservation. A lover, disguised like a woman, may be introduced into the forbidden place, and it is necessary he should remain undiscovered; death would otherwise be his reward. In this country, where the passions are excited by the climate, and the difficulty of gratifying them, love often produces tragical events.

The Turkish women go guarded by their eunuchs, upon the water also, and enjoy the charming prospects of the banks of the Nile. Their cabins are pleasant, richly embellished, and the boats well carved and painted. They are known by the blinds over the windows, and the music by which they are accompanied.

When they cannot go abroad, they endeavour to be merry in their prisons. Towards sun-set, they repair to the terrace, and take the fresh air among the flowers, which are there carefully reared. Here they often bathe; and thus at once, enjoy the cool, limpid water, the perfume of odoriferous plants, the balmy air, and the starry host which shines in the firmament. Thus bathed Bathsheba, when David beheld her from the roof of his palace.

The Turks oblige the public criers to swear, they will shut their eyes, when they call the people to prayer, that their wives may not be seen from the high minarets. Another more certain precaution they take is, to chuse the blind to perform this pious function.

Such is the usual life of the Egyptian women. Their duties are, to educate their children, of which we shall treat hereafter, to take care of their houshold, and live retired within their family: their pleasure is to visit, give feasts, in which they often yield to excessive mirth, and licentiousness; go on the water, take the air in orange-groves, and listen to the almai.

The hot baths, known in the remotest ages, and celebrated by Homer, have preserved all their alurements and salubrity. The baths have been already described, in our account of Turkey; of the manner of bathing in Egypt, it may not be amiss to add some further particulars.

The bathers are not, as in this country, imprisoned in a kind of tub, where the body cannot rest at its ease; but reclining on a spread sheet, and the head supported on a small pillow; they freely take what posture they please, while clouds of odoriferous vapours envelop and penetrate every pore.

Having reposed thus some time, a gentle moisture diffuses itself over the body; a servant then comes, gently presses, and turns the bather; and when the limbs are flexible, makes the joints crack without trouble; then touches lightly, and seems to knead the body, without giving the slightest sensation of pain.

This done, he puts on a stuff glove, and continues rubbing, and freeing the skin of the patient, which is quite wet, from every kind of scaly obstruction, and all those imperceptible particles that clog the pores, till it becomes as smooth as sattin; he then conducts the bather into a cabinet, and pours a lather of perfumed soap on his head, and retires.

The ancients honoured their guests still more; and treated them after a most voluptuous manner. Whilst Telemachus was at the court of Nestor, "The beauteous Polycaste, youngest of the daughters of the king of Pylos, led the son of Ulysses to the bath, washed him with her own hands; and, having rubbed his body with precious ointments, clothed him in rich garments, and a shining mantle." Nor were Pisistratus and Telemachus, worse treated in the palace of Menelaus; the beauties of which having admired, "they were conducted to marble basons, in which the baths were prepared; where beauteous slaves washed them, rubbed them with odorous oils, and clothed them in fine garments, and magnificent furred robes."

The room into which the bather retires, has two water-cocks, one for cold, the other for hot water; and he washes himself. The attendant presently returns, with a depilatory pomatum, which instantly eradicates hair, wherever applied. It is in general use, both with men and women in Egypt.

Being well washed and purified, the bather is wrapped up in hot linen, and follows his guide through various windings, which lead to the outward apartment; while this insensible transition, from heat to cold, prevents all inconvenience. Being come to the alcove, a bed is ready prepared, on which the person no sooner lies down, than a boy comes, and begins to press with his delicate hands, all parts of the body, in order to dry them perfectly: the linen is once more changed; and the boy gently rubs the callous skin of the feet with pumice stone, and then brings a pipe, and Moka coffee.

Coming from a bath filled with hot vapour, in which excessive perspiration bedewed every limb, into a spacious apartment, and the open air, the lungs expand and respire pleasure. Well kneaded, and, as it were, regenerated the blood circulates freely, the body feels a voluptuous ease, a flexibility till then unknown, and a lightness, as if relieved from some enormous weight; and the man almost fancies himself new-born, and first beginning to live. A consciousness of existence, diffuses itself to the very extremities; and, while thus yielding to the most delightful sensations, ideas of the most pleasing kind, pervade and fill the soul; the imagination wanders through worlds, which itself embellishes, every where drawing pictures of happiness and delight. If life be only a succession of ideas, the vigour, the rapidity, with which the memory then retraces all the knowledge of the man, would lead us to believe, that the two hours of delicious calm, which succeed bathing, are an age.

These are the baths, the use of which was so strongly recommended by the ancients, and the pleasures of which the Egyptians still enjoy. Here they prevent or exterminate rheumatisms, catarrhs, and those diseases of the skin, which want of perspiration occasions. Here they find a radical cure for that disease, which attacks the powers of generation, and the remedies for which are so dangerous in Europe. Here they rid themselves of those uncomfortable sensations, so common among other nations, who have not the same regard to cleanliness. Tournfort, who had taken the vapour bath at Constantinople, where they are much less careful than at Grand Cairo, thinks they injure the lungs; but longer experience would have convinced him of his error. There are no people who practise this bathing more than the Egyptians; nor any to whom such diseases are less known. They are almost wholly unacquainted with pulmonic complaints.

The women are passionately fond of these baths, where they go at least once a week, taking with them slaves accustomed to the office. More sensual than men, after the usual process, they wash the body, and particularly the head with rose-water. Then their attendants braid their long black hair, with which, instead of powder and pomatum, they mingle precious essences. They then blacken the rim of the eye-lid, arch the brows with cohel (tin burnt with gall nuts) and stain the nails of their hands and feet, of a golden yellow, with henna. Their linen, and their robes having been past through the sweet vapour of aloes wood, and their dressing ended, they remain in the outward apartment, and pass the day in feasting; while singing girls come and dance, and sing soothing airs, or recount amorous adventures.

The days of bathing, are festive days among the Egyptian women; they deck themselves magnificently; and, under the long veil of mantle, which hide them from the public eye, wear the richest stuffs. They undress themselves in presence of each other, and their vanity extends to their very drawers; which, in winter, are made of stuffs, inwove with silk and gold; and, in summer, of worked muslin. Ruffles and lace, are unknown to them; but their shifts are made of cotton and silk, as light and transparent as gauze. Rich sashes of cassimere, bind up their floating robes. The wool of cassimere, is the finest in the world, surpassing silk itself. The sashes made from it, cost about five and twenty pounds each; they are usually embroidered at the ends; and, though three French ells long, and one wide, may be drawn through a ring. Two crescents of fine pearls, sparkle amid the black hair that shades their temples; while diamonds enrich the Indian handkerchief, with which they bind their brows. Such are the Georgians and Circassians, whom the Turks purchase for their wives. They are neat to excess, and walk in an atmosphere of perfumes; and, though their luxury is hidden from the public, it surpasses that of the European women.

That we may finish the portrait of the Egyptian ladies, we will relate from Savary, a love-adventure, which happened when he was at Rosetta. Facts are better than arguments, to shew the manners of a people. Hassan, an old jealous Turk, had married a Georgian girl of sixteen, and appointed guards t• watch her. But what guards are so vigilant as love? This wealthy lord, had a magnificent garden near Rosetta, whither he permitted the youthful Jemily, his wife, to go and take the evening air. Slaves of both sexes always attended her. The men watched the walls, and stood centinel at the gates; the women waited on her within, where she languidly strayed among bowers. As she was gravely walking, one evening, by the river side, veiled, and surrounded by her slaves, to go to her garden, she perceived a European, who lately had arrived at Rosetta. The colours of youth were vivid on his cheeks, which were not yet tanned by the sun, and drew her attention. She passed slowly, and let her fan fall, that she might have a pretence to stop a moment. Her eyes met his, and the look went to her heart; the air, the shape, the features of the stranger, were imprinted in her memory; and, the impossibility of speaking to, and the dread of seeing him no more, gave her a painful sense of slavery. Scarcely had she arrived among the arbours of her garden, before she escaped from the croud; and, taking one of the women aside, in whom she had most confidence, said, Didst thou perceive the young stranger? Didst thou behold his bright eyes, and how he looked upon me? O, my friend! My dear Zetfa! Go find him, and tell him to walk among the orange groves to morrow evening, where the wall is lowest. Say, I wish to see him, and speak to him; only bid him shun the watchful eyes of my pityless keepers.

This message was punctually delivered, and the European, unguardedly promised; which promise, the sight of approaching danger made him break. The slave went a second time, and asked him why he had not kept his word. His excuses were various, and he fixed a distant time. Reflection again vanquished passion, and he went not to the rendezvous. Zetfa returned once more. The youth, seduced by her discourse, swore, that on the morrow, he would be under the arbour, an hour after sun-set. The hour of appointment came, and a third time, the beauteous Jemily, saw herself deceived. Zetfa returned to the European, reproached him for his perfidy, and the imprudent youth once more promised; but, left to himself, the dread of an ignominious death, made him again violate his words. Patience itself has a period; that of Jemily, was long: for nine months she solicited a man, whom she had seen but an instant. One evening, after shedding tears of bitterness, forgetting herself in the grove, and thinking only of her lover, Hassan, tired of waiting, treated her harshly. The charm was broken, and she retired furious to her apartment. Go once more, said she, to the perfidious European, and bear him these my last words—I saw you, stranger, I thought you had sensibility, and my heart panted to be yours. Nine months you have deceived me; perjury to you is sport. But, beware, your life is in my hands, and I am determined. Hassan, will go tomorrow to Faoua, and he will not return till late. Either come in the evening and receive your pardon, or a slave shall bring me your head. Jemily, swears by the prophet, if longer neglected, to be revenged.

Zetfa faithfully reported these words, and the European hesitated no longer. At the appointed hour, he came to the wall, which separated him from the beauteous Georgian. His heart palpitates, he leaps the wall, and enters into the garden. Two women, on seeing him, rise and appear terrified, while he stood motionless. The one was Jemily herself, who held out her hand, and gave him courage. He approached, bowed profoundly, and was kindly raised; a signal was given, and the slave disappeared. Stranger, said Jemily, why have you deceived me so long, you love me not? Forgive me, beauteous Jemily; it was my fears detained me, but I am come to repair my wrongs, and throw myself at your feet. She seemed as if she would have continued her reproaches, but taking him by the hand, which trembled in her own, she led him to an orange-grove.

CHAP. VII. Of the Marriages, Education, and Paternal Authority.

MARRIAGE, among Christians, is a holy rite, and indissoluble. Laws, in certain cases, suspend, but seldom annihilate its effects. Oriental manners, so different from Europeans, have obliged legislators to render wedlock less permanent. The female relations, make matches for the young men. They meet most of the maidens of the city at the bath, whom they perfectly describe; and the choice made, the alliance is mentioned to the father of the female, the portion specified; and, if he consents, they make him presents. The procession, which is the commencement of the marriage-ceremony, usually begins in the evening; dancers go before the bride, with their feet tied to stilts, and carrying balancing poles; numerous slaves display the effects, furniture, and jewels, destined to her use; troops of dancing girls, keep time with their instruments; matrons richly cloathed, walk with a grave pace, and the young bride appears under a magnificent canopy, borne by four slaves, sustained by her mother and sisters, and entirely covered by a veil, embroidered with gold, pearls, and diamonds. A long file of flambeaux illumine the procession; and the almai, in chorus, occasionally sing verses in praise of the bride and bride-groom. I have twenty times beheld such pompous processions, in the streets of Cairo, where the longest route is always chosen; they being vain of displaying their whole splendor on these occasions.

When come to the house of her husband, the women go on the first floor, whence they perceive, through the blinds of a gallery, all that passes below. The men, who are assembled in the hall, do not mix with them, but pass part of the night in banquetting, and hearing music. The almai descend, throw off their veils, and display their agility and address; exhibiting to the sound of music, pantomimes, in which they represent the combats of Hymen, the struggles of the bride, and the artifices of love. Having ended, the almai, in chorus, chaunt the epithalamium. During the ceremony, the bride passes several times before the bridegroom, and always in different dresses, to display her wealth and elegance. The guests having retired, the husband enters the nuptial chamber; the veil is removed, and, for the first time, he beholds his wife.

Such are the ceremonies of marriage among the Egyptians, which the rich and poor scrupulously observe. The daughter of the mechanic, is, in like manner, conducted to her spouse; the only difference consists in the surrounding paraphernalia. Instead of slambeaux, they burn fir, in braziers carried on poles; and the stilt dancers, and tambours de basque, supply the want of almai, and musicians. The poor man's daughter, wanting attendants and canopies, borrows a veil, and marches to the sound of cymbals, or bits of metal, which her indigent followers strike in time, without tune.

Nearly the same ceremonies are observed by the Copts; but they have a custom of betrothing young girls, only six or seven years old, which is done by putting a ring on the finger. They often obtain permission, from her friends, to educate her, till she arrives at puberty. Divorces, bathing, and marriage processions, are also practised by the schismatic christians; only they can have but one wife at a time.

The first care of an Egyptian lady is to educate her children; and a numerous posterity is their most fervent wish. This is even the prayer of the poor, who earns his bread by the sweat of his brow; and did not adoption alleviate grief, when nature is unkind, a barren woman would be inconsolable. The mother daily suckles her child, whose infant smiles, added to frequent pregnancy, recompences all the cares and pains they create. Milk diseases, and those maladies which dry up the juices of the youthful wife, who sends her offspring to be nurtured by a stranger, are here unknown. That mothers should suckle their young, is a law as ancient as the world; it is expressly ordered by Mahomet. "Let mothers suckle their children full two years, if the child does not quit the breast; but she shall be permitted to wean it with the consent of her husband." Ulysses, in the Elysian fields, beholds his mother, his tender mother, there, who had sed him with her milk, and nurtured him in infancy.

When obliged by circumstances to take a nurse, they do not treat her as a stranger; she becomes one of the family, and passes her days amidst the children she has suckled, by whom she is cherished and honoured as a second mother.

The harem, is the cradle and school of infancy. The new-born feeble infant is not there swaddled, and filleted up in a swathe, the source of a thousand diseases. Laid naked on a mat, exposed in a vast chamber to the pure air, he breathes freely; and, with his delicate limbs, sprawls at pleasure. The new element in which he is to live, is not entered with pain and tears. Daily bathed beneath his mother's eye, he grows apace; free to act, he tries his coming powers, rolls, crawls, rises; and, should he fall, cannot much hurt himself, on the carpet, or mat, which covers the floor.

He is not banished his father's house, when seven years old, and sent to college, with the loss of health and innocence; he does not, it is true, acquire much learning; he, perhaps, can only read and write; but, he is healthy, robust, fears God, respects old age, has filial piety, and delights in hospitality; which virtues, continually practised in his family, remain deeply engraven in his heart.

The daughter's education is the same. Whalebone and busks, which martyr European girls, they know not; they run naked, or covered only with a shift, till six years old; and the dress they afterwards wear, confines none of their limbs, but suffers the body to take its true form; and nothing is more uncommon than ricketty children, and crooked people.

History places the infancy of human nature in the East; here paternal authority began, and here its rights are still preserved. A father enjoys all the titles nature bestows. Each family forms a small state, of which the father is king; the members of it, attached to him by the ties of blood, acknowledge and submit to his power. The children, educated in the women's apartment, do not come into the hall; especially when strangers are there. Young people are silent in this hall; if men grown, they are allowed to join the conversation: but, when the sheik, i. e. head of the family, speaks, they cease and attentively listen; if he enters an assembly, all rise; they give him way in public, and every where shew him esteem and respect. In the time of Herodotus, these manners subsisted in Egypt; and the despotism under which it groans, serves to preserve them. A numerous posterity, often resides under the same roof; the children, and grand-children, come and pay their common father a daily tribute of veneration and love: the pleasure of being loved and respected, in proportion as age increases, makes him forget he grows old; the content of his heart sparkles in his eyes, and security smooths the wrinkles of his forehead; he is chearful and jocular; and, while his youthful descendants wear the most modest garments, he is decked in the gayest colours Happy, in the bosom of his family, when on the borders of the grave, he perceives not the approach of death; and reclines to everlasting rest, amidst the embraces of his children. Long do they mourn his loss, and each week strew his tomb with flowers. The Egyptians have lost the art of embalming, but not the feelings which gave it birth.

Among polished nations, the silver-haired fire is often obliged to be silent, in the presence of haughty youth; or assume the manners of a boy, to become supportable. In proportion, as the burthen of life is felt, and its pleasures diminish, he beholds himself an incumbrance to those who, but for him, had never been. They refuse him consolation when he needs it most; and the cold hand of age withers his faculties, which the kindly flame of filial love warms not. In such nations, the grey-haired feeling father dies, long before he is carried to the grave. I was impelled, says Savary, to draw this parallel, by the affecting scenes I here each day witness; where the reverend patriarch, with his beard floating on his breast, smiles in frigid age on his grand-children, who approach him with their caresses. He beholds four generations, eager to pay him all filial duty; his heart expands, and he delights in life to its last moment. These people have, in ignorance, preserved the simplicity of ancient manners; they know not our arts and sciences, but the sweetest sensations of nature, not taught by book, they know, enjoy, and revere.

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Title statement

The habitable world described: or the present state of the people in all parts of the globe, from north to south; shewing the situation, extent, climate, ... including all the new discoveries: ... With a great variety of maps and copper-plates, ... By the Rev. Dr. John Trusler. ... [pt.14]

Trusler, John, 1735-1820.

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ID [ota]

http://ota.ox.ac.uk/id/5048

ID [isbn10]

1106020472

ID [isbn13]

9781106020475

ID [TCP]

K096120.014

ID [BIBNO]

CW3304398798

ID [ECHG]

0161700114

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— The habitable world described: or the present state of the people in all parts of the globe, from north to south; shewing the situation, extent, climate, ... including all the new discoveries: ... With a great variety of maps and copper-plates, ... By the Rev. Dr. John Trusler. ..., Trusler, John, 1735-1820.. 20v.,plates : maps ; 8⁰. London :: printed for the author, at the Literary-Press, no. 62, Wardour-Street, Soho; and sold by all booksellers,. 1788-97.. [Vols. 1-3 dated 1788; 4-5, 1789; 6-8, 1790; 9-10, 1791; 11-12, 1792; 13-14, 1793; 15-16, 1794; 17-18, 1795; 19, 1796; 20, 1797.] [Each volume has an additional titlepage, engraved: 'The habitable world described. Inscribed by permission to .. Frederick, Duke of York, &c. &c.'.] [The engraved titlepages are dated: vols. 1-11, 1788; 12-15, 1790; 16-19, 1795.] [Vols. 16-18 bear the imprint: London, printed for the author, and sold by J. Parsons.] [Vols. 19-20 bear the imprint: London, printed for the author, and sold by L. Legoux.] [Reproduction of original from the British Library.] [English Short Title Catalog, ESTCT120079.] [Electronic data. Farmington Hills, Mich. : Thomson Gale, 2003. Page image (PNG). Digitized image of the microfilm version produced in Woodbridge, CT by Research Publications, 1982-2002 (later known as Primary Source Microfilm, an imprint of the Gale Group).]

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