A treatise on practical seamanship: ... By William Hutchinson, mariner, and dock master, at Liverpool.

Table of contents

- [frontispiece]

- [titlepage]

- THE ADDRESS.

- THE CONTENTS.

- On AIR.

- On WIND.

- On WATER.

- On SHIPS HULLS.

- On Hanging SHIPS RUDDERS.

- On HAUSE HOLES.

- On MASTS and YARDS.

- On SHIPS SAILS.

- On RIGGING and ROPES.

- On STOWING and TRIMMING a SHIP.

- On the Center of GRAVITY, MOTION and CAVITY of a SHIP.

- On getting a SHIP under Way.

- On getting under WAY with a LEE TIDE.

- On the HELM.

- On the HELM when a Ship has Sternway.

- To cast a Ship upon the Larboard Tack, and back her astern of Danger, as above mentioned.

- To cast a Ship upon the Larboard Tack, and Shoot her by the Wind ahead of Danger.

- To cast a Ship on the Larboard Tack, when riding in a Tide, with the Wind two Points on the Starboard Bow.

- To cast a Ship upon the Larboard Tack, when riding with the Wind right a-head, and to ware her short round, before the wind, in little Room.

- On Turning to WINDWARD.

- On Tacking and Turning to WINDWARD.

- To tack a Ship when in a dangerous Situation by a ruff Sea, or when her Trim or her Property is such as may make her Staying doubtful.

- To Tack a quick turning Ship in a fresh Gale, and smooth Water.

- Turning to Windward in very narrow Channels.

- On Box Hauling a SHIP.

- On Club Hauling a SHIP.

- On a Ship driving to Windward with the Tide.

- To drive a Ship Broadfide to Windward, with the Tide right against the Wind.

- To drive Broadside to Windward, with the Tide running across the Channel, or in a River of a winding or ser pentine Form.

- On bringing a Ship to an Anchor.

- On Coiling CABLES.

- To come to an Anchor when the Wind is right against the Tide.

- To come to an Anchor when going with a strong Wind and Tide the same Way.

- To come to an Anchor when the Wind is right a-cross the Tide.

- To come to an Anchor at Slack-tide, or in still Water, where there is neither Tide or Current.

- To come to an Anchor in Roads that are often crowded with Ships, so as to take and give good and clear births.

- To come to an Anchor when designed to moor with the best and small bower Anchors.

- To let go all the Anchors to best Advantage, when that is the only Chance left to keep the Ship off a lee Shore.

- On keeping a clear ANCHOR.

- To keep a clear Anchor, with the Wind right against the Tide.

- On keeping a clear Anchor when the Wind blows a Point or two a-cross the Tide.

- To keep a clear Anchor when the Wind is right a-cross the Tide.

- On Mooring SHIPS.

- On keeping a clear or open HAWSE.

- On serving the CABLES to prevent their chaifing.

- How the weakest Moorings may be best applied, to help a Ship to ride out a Storm.

- On Unmooring a SHIP.

- On heaving the HAND-LEAD.

- Rules commonly observed by a good Leads-Man.

- On singing out the SOUNDINGS.

- On Sounding with the DEEPSEA LEAD.

- To bring a Ship too to Sound.

- On the LATITUDE.

- On the Latitude of Places being wrong laid down.

- On LOOK-OUT.

- On looking out for Land.

- On looking out aloft for Shoals, &c.

- On seeing Shoals in clear Water, from the Mast-head.

- On the Longitude at Sea by Observation.

- On making PASSAGES.

- On making PASSAGES in the Coal Trade.

- On making PASSAGES in Merchant Ships.

- On choosing the WATCHES.

- On shaping a Course, and navigating thro' dangerous nar row Seas or Straits, where Tides or Currents run strong.

- On Turning to Windward in narrow Seas.

- On Taking a Departure from the Land.

- Difference between the Theory and Practice of Navigation.

- On STEERING in General.

- On SHIPS Compasses.

- On the STEERING WHEEL.

- On STEERING a COURSE.

- Difference between good and bad Helmsmen.

- On Suiting a Ship with Sail that she may be well steered.

- On Steering upon a Wind in the open Ocean.

- On making Allowance for LEE-WAY.

- On Measuring a Ship's Way at SEA.

- On Measuring a Ship's Way by the LOG.

- On Heaving and Marking down the Log, only once in two Hours.

- On Heaving and Marking down the Log every Hour.

- On a Ship when in the open Ocean.

- On turning to Windward in the open Ocean.

- On taking in Sails to save them, and give Ease to a Ship sailing upon a Wind in a Storm.

- On taking in Topsails upon a Wind when it blows strong.

- On taking in the Courses upon a Wind in a Storm.

- On Brailing up the Mizen.

- On taking in the Fore, Main, or Mizen Stay-sails.

- On taking in the Topsails, Mainsail, or Foresail, when sailing large or before the Wind in a Storm.

- On taking in the Foresail at the Time of Waring.

- On laying a Ship to in a Storm.

- On lying to under a Mainsail with the Foresail a-back in the Brails.

- On a Ship under lower Stay-sails and Mizen in a Storm.

- On the Advantages of a Ship being kept under lower Stay-sails and Mizen, instead of lying to in a Storm.

- On bearing away in a Storm, to scud before the Wind and Waves.

- On Sailing Large or before the Wind in Squall illegible .

- On scudding or sailing before the Wind in a Storm.

- On cunning to the Helmsman.

- On Sailing and Cunning, with high Winds and Waves right upon the Beam.

- On carrying Sail against Head Waves.

- On Loofing and Setting Sails.

- On drawing near to Danger, or making a Landsail

- On getting a Pilot on Board in bad Weather at Sea.

- On PILOTS.

- On the TIDES.

- THE PREFACE.

- On Ripplings or Races that run at the Edge of strong TIDES.

- On a Ship at Anchor waiting for the TIDE.

- On Leading Marks thro' Channels, or to avoid Dangers.

- On LIGHT-HOUSES.

- On Oil Lamps with Reflectors and Light-houses.

- On Running for dangerous Tide, or Bar Harbours.

- On Running for Liverpool at improper Times.

- On Letter of Mart Ships and Privateers.

- On Fitting out Letter of Mart Ships and Privateers.

- On the common Gun Carriage.

- On the Method of carrying Lower Deck Guns.

- On Carrying the Guns Run out.

- On Swivel Carriages for great Guns.

- On those Carriages carrying the Guns with more Con venience, Ease, and Safety to the Ship than the com mon Carriage.

- The Advantages of these Carriages above the common ones, either for Exercise or Action.

- On fortifying the Quarter-Deck.

- On Carrying Swivel Guns in the Tops.

- On the Powder and Shot.

- On keeping a clean Bottom.

- On the sailing of Letter of Mart Ships, or Privateers.

- On Stationing and Exercising the People.

- On Exercising Manoeuvres; how to atack or defend a Ship.

- On a Ship Cruising in her Station.

- On Chasing.

- On towing and rowing a ship in chace

- On coming to action.

- On treating prisoners of war.

- On Sayings and Signs of Good or Bad Weather.

- On Ships in Distress.

- On dangerous Leaks suddenly breaking out.

- On a Ship overset or laid on her Side at Sea.

- On Recovering a Ship upright without cutting away the Masts.

- To make a Ship ware and steer that has lost her Foremast.

- On Steering a Ship that has lost her Rudder.

- On the Danger of a Lee Shore in a Gale of Wind when the Waves run high.

- On a Ship being near a dangerous Lee Shore.

- On Ships being forced upon a dangerous Lee Shore.

- On saving Lives from a Ship lost on a Lee Shore.

- THE CONCLUSION.

- [plates]

- 1

- 2

- 3

- 4

- 5

- 6

- 7

- 8

- 9

- 10

- [map]

- INSTRUCTIONS.

- To sail from the GREAT ORMSHEAD for HOYLAKE.

- To sail from the N. E. Buoy on HOYLE through the Rock Channel for LIVERPOOL.

- When at the N. E. Buoy these Marks to be observed, shew what Water there is on the Bar in the Rock Channel.

- To sail from the GREAT ORMSHEAD through FORMBY Channel.

PRACTICAL SEAMANSHIP.

AS the elements principally concerned in the management of ships, are air or wind, and water, I hope I shall be excused in taking the liberty to endeavour to explain what I have learned from others, or know myself from experience, of the properties of these fluids, so far as they may concern practical seamanship.

FINIS.

Britannia's Glory first from SHIPS Arose—

To SHIPPING still her Power & wealth she Owes▪

Let each Experienc'd BRITON then Impart—

His Naval skill to Perfect naval Art▪

A TREATISE ON Practical Seamanship; WITH HINTS AND REMARKS RELATING THERETO: Designed to contribute something towards fixing RULES UPON Philosophical and Rational PRINCIPLES; TO Make SHIPS, and the MANAGEMENT of them; AND ALSO NAVIGATION, in GENERAL, more PERFECT, AND Consequently less DANGEROUS and DESTRUCTIVE TO HEALTH, LIVES, AND PROPERTY.

By WILLIAM HUTCHINSON, MARINER, And DOCK MASTER, at LIVERPOOL.

PRINTED, And SOLD for the AUTHOR at all the principal SEAPORTS in GREAT-BRITAIN and IRELAND, 1777.

THE ADDRESS.

THIS TREATISE on PRACTICAL SEAMANSHIP, with hints and remarks relating thereto, as mentioned in the contents, is humbly addressed to all whom the different parts mostly concern; but more especially to young Sea Officers, who use their utmost endeavours, under Providence, to make the knowledge and discharge of their duty in their stations, the principal pleasure and pursuit of their time, which may make them a benefit and not a burden to their country, their friends, and themselves, in their voyage through life.

IT must be allowed, that the improvement of our ships, and the management of them, for many years past, has given that remarkable superiority British seamen have over others, on all important occasions. Yet I have learned from experience, that this art of seamanship, and its importance, is not so generally understood amongst us as it deserves, for one trading part of the nation has, by their practice, the experience the other wants.

SOME men are so devoted to the methods they have been accustomed to, that they cannot be prevailed upon to try another; others endeavour to try impracticable methods, and attempt to make ships do impossibilities, such as to back them astern clear of a single anchor, when the wind is right against the windward tide, that drives them to windward of their anchors; or to back a ship with sails so set as to prevent her from shooting a-head towards a danger when laid to, or driving broad side with the wind right against the tide, not knowing that a ship driving on either tack will always shoot and advance bodily forward, the way her head lies, in spite of any sails that can be set aback; all which, I trust, will be shewn in their proper places in the following work.

NOT only the above instances, (by which I have known ships go on shore,) but the whole duty and conduct of sea officers, as far as mentioned in this book, has hitherto been left entirely to the slow progress of experience, by which they, and all concerned with them, are constantly liable to be great sufferers by mistaken practices in seamanship

FREQUENT observations of this defect, induced me to endeavour to fix the best rules for Practical Seamanship, that seamen may not be left entirely to learn their duty by their own and other people's misfortunes, which has been the case hitherto, but by the experience of others who have gone before them. From all that I have seen, in the many different trades that I have been employed in, those seamen in the coal and coasting trade, to the city of London, are the most perfect in working and managing their ships in narrow, intricate, and difficult channels, and in tide ways; and the seamen in the East India trade are so on the open seas.

I HAVE heard it was said by the great Doctor Halley, that the safety of navigating ships, in his time, depended principally upon three L's, meaning lead, latitude, and lookout. But a late Mathematician, a friend of mine at Liverpool, said, that there was no hidden or unknown principles concerned in the art of building, sailing, working, and managing of ships, but the laws of motion, the pressure of fluids, and the properties of the leaver, which are all well known to the British Philosophers and Mathematicians, and nothing so much deserved their attention and pursuit, to bring this art to its utmost perfection for the welfare and support of GREAT BRITAIN.

THESE reasons, and that of the most of the useful arts having been made public, to our great improvement and advantage, emboldens me to publish this laboured performance on this long neglected subject, which, I must own, will appear to great disadvantage from the unexpected difficulties I have found, in being a new writer venturing to lead the way on so important and extensive a subject, in this learned criticising age; but for my imperfections, as a scholar, I hope the Critics will make allowance for my having been early in life at sea as cook of a collier; and having since then gone through all the most active enterprising employments I could meet with, as a seaman, who has done his best, and who, as an author, would be glad of any remarks candidly pointed out how to improve his defects, if there should be a demand for a SECOND EDITION.

THE CONTENTS.

- ON air, and its weight. Page 1

- Foul air in ships, and how to get clear of it. Page 2

- Pressure of air, and the bad effects it may have on ships in a tide way lying in mud, and on people being drowned by sticking fast in mud, Page 3

- Pressure of the air, the cause of what is called suction, and the weather judged of from the state of the air by weather glasses. Page 4

- The uncertainty of weather glasses, a storm once pointed out by one, Page 5

- On wind and its velocity, and on eddy wind, &c. and how the wind acts on a ship's sails both by and large. Page 6

- On water, its properties in floating ships and other bodies, its pressure, and on leaks being in proportion to the different depths, and on different shaped bottles broke by its pressure. Page 8

- On ships hulls, recommended to be built with rounding bottoms curved a litte downwards rather than with straight floors. Page 10

- On the difference of sharp and full built ships for sailing. Page 13

- Advantages in building ships with rounding bottoms, projecting stems, and upright stern posts. Page 14

- On hanging ships rudders, and on ships hawse holes. Page 17

- On masts and yards. Page 18

- On ships sails, narrow taunt square sails recommended. Page 19

- Fore tacks to stand as far to windward as main tacks, the angle ships sails stand at when turning to windward, and on setting many sails and working them in an easy manner in little wind. Page 20

- On setting many sails to the greatest advantage to sail large, or before the wind, in fine weather, and how sails may be strengthened in the making them. Page 22

- On rigging, and ropes above six inches round, recommended to be cable laid, for standing rigging. Page 23

- On stowing and trimming a ship. Page 24

- Experience the only guide to find a ship's best sailing trim. Page 25

- Different proportions of ships require different management in stowing. Page 25

- The bad consequence of a ship being too crank, or too stiff. Page 26

- The medium ought to be endeavoured after. The weightiest part of the cargo or materials to be near the main body of a ship. Page 28

- On the center of cavity and gravity of a ship. Page 29

- The center of gravity always liable to al•er its place. Why a ship oversets, and what supports from overseeing. The center of motion of a ship. Experiments on models of ships to find their center of motion. Page 30

- The center of motion shewn by a ship launched. Page 31

- The center of gravity and motion of a ship at sea in high waves, are near the same place; and the ship's behaviour depends upon that place. Page 32

- Heavy bodies turn in quick motion upon their center of gravity, and bring their heaviest end foremost. Reasons why a well proportioned ship may be easy or uneasy in high waves at sea. The properties of a collier cat loaded with timber. Page 33

- The difference of being loaded with timber and coal. Page 34

- On loading lead without sufficient dinnage. Experiments recommended to find out a ship's best trim, by their different degrees of stiffness. Page 36

- On getting a ship under way. To heave a peek with the first of a windward tide, and sail with the flood tide, recommended; and on getting under way with a lee tide. To consult the officers on all necessary occasions, and the intended method of proceeding to be made known. Page 37

- On the helm, fault of its going too far over, or not far enough. Page 38

- The effect of the water on the rudder. On the helm when a ship has stern way. Page 39

- To cast a ship from a single anchor on the larboard tack, with a lee tide, and back her a stern of a danger by making a stern board. Page 40

- To cast the same way, and shoot her a-head of a danger upon a wind. Page 41

- To cast a ship on the larboard tack, riding in a tide way with the wind two points on the starboard bow. Page 42

- To cast on the larboard tack, when riding in a lee tide with the wind right a-head, and ware short round before the wind in little room, and to do it in still water. Page 43

- On turning to windward, and what makes a ship gain ground to windward. Page 44

- An experiment proved, when the wind blew at the rate of nine miles an hour, a sailing boat sailed at the rate of five by the wind and large; and to sail within six points of the wind is near enough for a three mast ship to turn to windward. Page 45

- On tacking and turning to windward; and when a ship is in the best sailing trim for it. An experiment of a rudder tried to the stem of a sailing boat to help gaining to windward. The advantage to suit a ship with sail to prevent her griping too much on the helm. Page 46

- To tack a ship when in a dangerous situation by a rough sea, or when her trim or property is such as to make her staying doubtful. Page 47

- To tack a quick turning ship in a fresh gale and smooth water. Page 48

- An experiment made with a model of a ship on the helm being more or less over. And on tacking in very narrow channels. Page 49

- On tacking and working to windward in the coal trade to LONDON. Page 50

- On turning to windward in very narrow channels. Page 51

- On box-hauling a ship when she refuses stays. Page 52

- Why a ship loses little ground in box-hauling. Page 53

- On club-hauling a ship. And on driving to windward with the tide. Page 54

- Reasons why ships shoots a head more than they can be backed a stern when driving broad side to windward, though with the sails a-back. Page 55

- To drive a ship broad side to windward, with the tide right against the wind. And driving end on to the tide the difference it makes in driving. Page 56

- On bringing to, and waring when driving broad side to windward. Page 57

- To drive broad side to windward with the tide running a little across a channel, or in a winding serpentine river as represented in plate 3. Page 58

- On bringing a ship to an anchor. And on coiling cables. Page 59

- On the bad custom of always coiling cables with the sun without being stretched, or the end taken through the coil. And the great advantage of making as long a scope a cable as possible to one good anchor. Page 60

- To come to an anchor when the wind is right against the tide. Page 61

- To come to an anchor when sailing with a strong wind and tide the same way. And when the wind is right across the tide. Page 62

- The great advantage in bringing a ship's head against the tide at letting go the anchor. And to come to an anchor at slack tide, or still water where there is neither tide nor current. Page 63

- To come to an anchor in roads that are often crowded with ships so as to take and give good and clear births. Page 64

- To come to an anchor when designed to moor with the best and small bower anchors. And to let go all the anchors to the best advantage, when that is the only chance left to keep a ship off a lee shore. Page 65

- On keeping a clear anchor. Page 66

- To keep a clear anchor with the wind right against the tide. Page 67

- To cast the ship the right way when the windward tide makes so as to shoot her always one way clear of the anchor. Page 68

- On keeping a clear anchor when the wind blows a point or two across the tide. Page 69

- To keep a clear anchor when the wind is right across the tide. Page 70

- On the bad custom of sheering a ship to windward of her anchor. Page 71

- The advantages of sheering to leeward of the anchor. Page 72

- On mooring ships. Page 73

- On keeping a clear or open hawse. Page 74

- On serving the cables to prevent their chafing. Page 75

- How the weakest moorings may be best applied to help a ship to ride out a storm. Page 76

- On unmooring a ship. And on heaving the hand lead. Page 77

- Rules observed by a good leads man. And on singing out the soundings. Page 78

- On sounding with the deep sea lead. Page 79

- To bring a ship to, to sound. And on the latitude. Page 80

- On the latitude of places being wrong laid down. Page 81

- On look out. Page 82

- On looking out for land. Page 83

- On looking out aloft for shoals. And on seeing shoals in clear water from the mast head. Page 84

- On the longitude at sea by observation. Page 85

- To have our system of worlds and the fixed stars more easily described. And a compass card ecliptick instead of the twelve signs. And to shew our world on the eight capital points of her orbit recommended. Page 87

- How our system of worlds with their moons move round the sun. And our world that causes the sun's different declinations, length of days and nights, and our four different seasons of the year. Winter, spring, summer, and fall quarters. And to try to observe the longitude by Jupiter's moons, with Dolland's improved spying glass in calms and smooth water at sea, or in roads or harbours. Page 89

- This compass card ecliptick with two star hemipheres recommended to be made public by those in power for the benefit of seamen. Page 90

- On making passages. Page 92

- On making passages in the coal trade to LONDON, their dexterity in sailing, managing, and working their ships, and the difference of men in heaving up an anchor with the windlass. Page 93

- On making passages in merchant ships. In narrow channels, and cross tides, two objects for leading marks should always be endeavoured after, being much better than any single mark. Sailing with the ebb tide more dangerous than with the flood. In case of getting out of the proper channel whether to let go the anchor or to proceed forward, to be considered. Proceeding in the night among dangers, if a boat can be sent to shew where they are may be of great service. A ship coming aground that is likely to take a great heald, the topmast should be struck before she takes her heald, and the lower yards may be made shores to help to support her. Page 96

- On choosing the watches. Safety depends on the watch upon deck. The officer of the watch to use his judgment to avoid danger when it appears. Page 98

- On shaping a course and navigating through dangerous narrow seas, or straits, where tides or currents run strong if known should be allowed and reckoned as a course. The anchors and cables to be ready on this occasion. To find a ship's situation when danger appears, before proceeding further recommended. Page 99

- On turning to windward in narrow seas. The advantages and disadvantages in bad weather of beating at sea, or running for a port, compared. Remarks when stopping tide, and to take the advantage of the difference of the tide running off, and in shore, recommended. Page 101

- On taking a departure from the land. And the difference between the theory and practice of navigation, with reasons for it. Page 102

- On steering in general. Page 103

- On ships compasses. And on the steering wheel to have its spokes marked, recommended. Page 104

- On steering a course. Page 105

- Difference between good and bad helms-men. Page 106

- On suiting a ship with sail that she may be well steered. And on steering upon a wind in the open ocean. And on making allowance for lee way. Page 107

- Experiment on measuring ships away at sea. And on measuring it by the log. Proportions for the log line and glass to mark the line and try the glass. Page 109

- On heaving and marking down the log only once in two hours. Page 112

- On heaving and marking down the log every hour in the log book and journals, as practised in the EAST-INDIA trade. Page 113

- On a ship when in the open ocean. And on turning to windward there. Page 115

- On taking in sails to save them, and ease the ship sailing upon a wind in the beginning of a storm. Page 116

- On taking in the topsails upon a wind when it blows strong. And on taking in the courses upon a wind in a storm. Page 117

- On brailing up the mizen. And taking in the lower staysails upon a wind. And on taking in the topsails, mainsail, or foresail, when sailing large, or before the wind in a storm. Page 118

- On taking in the foresail at the time of waring in a storm. Page 119

- On laying a ship to in a storm. And on lying to under a mainsail, with the foresail aback in the brails. Mainsail often split by it. Page 120

- On a ship under lower staysails and mizen in a storm. And the advantages of it instead of lying to in a storm. Page 121

- On Bearing away in a storm, to scud before the wind and waves. And on sailing large or before the wind in squalls. Page 123

- On scuding or sailing before the wind in a storm. And on relieving the helms-man, to prevent the ship broaching to. And to allow for bad steerage in marking down the log. Page 125

- On cunning to the helms-man. Page 127

- On sailing and cunning with high winds and waves right upon the beam. The danger of sailing this way, on luffing up to or bear away from a dangerous wave. To avoid the danger of sailing this way by altering the course a little either way. Page 128

- On carrying sail against head waves. And on loosing and setting sails. Page 130

- On drawing near to danger, or making a land fall. Page 131

- On turning to windward out of MOUNT'S BAY. And box-hauled the ship when she would not stay. Page 132

- Necessary cautions in strong tide channels in the night, or thick, weather. And not to mistake the land, which often occasions great misfortunes. Page 133

- On getting a Pilot on board in bad weather at sea. Page 134

- On Pilots, and their necessary qualifications only to recommend how to treat and depend upon them. And not to be afraid to differ and take the command from them when found necessary. An instance of a narrow escape from loss by being over persuaded by one Page 135

- On the tides, and the important advantages of the knowledge of them to navigation. Damage done by running for bar harbours at a wrong time of tide. Observations on the tides at LIVERPOOL. A middling tide nicely observed. Their flowing compared with a tide clock. They slow more or less in proportion to the moon's distance. When the day and night tides run highest. Why spring and neep tides come sooner or later. Progressive difference of the tides flowing. Tables for the time and height of the tides flowing at LIVERPOOL. The preface for these tables. Advantages of these tide tables. The moon's distance in her orbit to be attended to for the height and strength of the tides. To make an allowance for the wind being with or against the direction of the flood-tide Page 139

- On ripplings or races that run at the edge of strong tides. Page 146

- On a ship at anchor waiting for the tide. And on leading marks thro' channels, or to avoid dangers. To observe marks, buoys, &c. with a spying-glass, recommended. And the best colours for marks, buoys, &c. Page 147

- On light-houses. And the uncertainty of open fire-light Page 148

- On oil-lamps, with reflectors, for light houses. How made and fixed in light-houses at LIVERPOOL. On light-houses that require to be seen more than half round the compass. On hand-lamps and reflectors. Signals for ships seen off, and in distress. Experiment of the distance of two lights not to appear as one. Round or circular windows, with the best glass recommended for light-houses. Page 149

- On running for dangerous tide and bar harbours. Page 155

- On running for LIVERPOOL at improper times. Not to run till a proper time and tide. Danger of running too soon, as well as too late, in the tide. To guard against cross tides. On grounding on sand-banks, when the flood-tide runs strong over them. Hints to ride a ship by the stern. And when catched in the narrows in a fog. Page 156

- On letter of mart ships and privateer's crews to be disciplined. Page 159

- On sitting out these ships. Short and light guns recommended. Page 160

- On the common gun carriage. And on the method of carrying lower-deck guns. The cause of their breaking loose Page 161

- On carrying the guns run out. Page 162

- On swivel carriages for great guns Page 163

- On these carriages carrying the guns with more convenience, ease and safety to the ship, than the common carriage. Page 164

- Their advantage above the common carriage, either for exercise or action. On pointing the gun to the object with more ease and certainty Page 165

- On fortifying the quarter-deck, forceastle and tops, &c Page 168

- On carrying swivel guns in the tops. And on powder and shot. And how to prove the powder recommended Page 169

- On keeping a clean bottom. A cask scrubber recommended. Page 171

- On the sailing of letter of mart ships, or privateers. Page 172

- On stationing and exercising their people. Page 173

- On exercising manoeuvres to attack or defend a ship. Page 174

- On a ship cruising in her station. Without sail in the day and under topsails at night. Not always to give chace at first seeing a ship. Page 179

- On chasing to the best advantage. And on seeing the chace in the night. Page 181

- On towing and rowing a ship in chace. On sculling oars used in CHINA.

- And on porpoises sculling with their tails, shews, that oars, in rowing and sculling, will never be beat by any complicated machinery. Page 182

- On coming to action properly prepared. Page 184

- On running end on to the enemy's broad side to begin the attack. Page 185

- On attacking by backing and filling the sails. Page 186

- To take all advantages in attacking, keeping the enemy always before the beam, to observe and act according to their motion. Page 187

- On treating prisoners of war well; but to guard against their rising. Page 188

- On sayings and signs of good or bad weather. Page 189

- On ships in distress. And dangerous leaks suddenly breaking out. Page 192

- On a ship overset, or laid on her side at sea. Page 193

- On recovering a ship upright without cutting away the masts. Page 194

- To make a ship ware and steer that has lost her foremast. And a ship that will not steer without broaching to. And on steering a ship that has lost her rudder. Page 195

- On the danger of a lee shore in a gale of wind, when the waves run high and a rocky shore, the best of swimmers stand but little chance to save their lives, as proved by a fatal instance. Page 197

- On a ship being near a dangerous lee shore. To try to clear it by carrying sail, to box-haul the ship when she refuses stays. To endeavour to ride out the storm. To cut away the masts as necessity may require. Page 198

- On ships being forced upon a dangerous lee shore. The necessity for the best of management to save lives and property on this occasion. Page 200

- The best conduct when it is a gentle sloping shore, in a tide way, and to wait the best time of tide to quit the ship, nearer low water the better. Page 201

- To preserve the boats, and the best method to haul them over strands. When the shore is nothing but high, hard steep rocks, both above and under water, requires the ground tackle to be tried as the only refuge. On a gentle sloping shore, when the waves are not so violent to bulge a ship, to trim her by the head, to be end on to the sea may answer best to preserve and get her off again. Page 202

- On saving lives from ships lost on a lee shore. Page 203

- Experiments recommended to be tried for this noble purpose. And certain rewards of a guinea or more to the poor people on shore for every human life that can be saved from wrecks, and vessels forced on shore, as fixed here by the Corporation of LIVERPOOL. Page 204

- The Conclusion. Page 209

On AIR.

IT is enough for our purpose here to say, that air in motion which moves ships, is a fluid body, as much as the water they swim in: This is proved from many experiments, and may be perceived from what we see ordained by the ALL GREAT AUTHOR of nature, in birds, insects, and all animals that fly, how they float or swim, steer and govern their directions through the air by their wings and tails, upon the same principles that fish swim in water.

AND air is proved by experiment to have its weight in air of about seventeen grains to a quart, near the surface of the sea,
The weight of air.

as a quart vessel when the air is pumped out by an air pump, weighs about seventeen grains less than when the air is in it; but the air weighs less and less in proportion, as it is higher above the surface or level of the sea: And its property is to buoy up or raise any matter that is lighter than it self, bulk for bulk, as may be seen by smoak, steam, or vapours, rising up to certain heights, 'till they come to air that is of the same weight with themselves, where they float and make mists, fogs, or clouds, which darken the sky, and hinders us from seeing any considerable distance about us, till they are dispersed or separated, or fall in rain or snow, &c.

CONFINED air in ships deserves particular notice, it often occasions diseases,
Foul air in ships.

and sometimes immediate death, as has frequently been the case in the pump wells of ships of war; charcoal fires, &c. in close places, are dangerous and sometimes fatal; too many people together in close places, filth and dirt made and suffered to continue below, fouls the air, therefore every seaman that does not know it should be told, that by his common breathing he fouls a gallon of air, and requires a gallon of fresh air to breath in every minute; so that for the preservation of themselves, they should not grudge or think much to keep the places where they rest, as clear and clean as things will admit of; and use every method possible to keep ships clear of bad air, which becomes proportionably heavier as it becomes more foul, and loosing its circulating property it naturally descends to, and stagnates in the lowest vacancies, where it hastens to corruption every thing that is subject to decay, even the ship and her materials; and much more so the provisions, which must consequently make unhealthy ships.

To get clear of foul air.

WHEN foul air in ships proceeds from their being over crowded with people below, which may prove very fatal: to prevent the bad effects of its lying in a ship, I would recommend to keep the pumps constantly working tho' no water in the ship 'till a lighted candle will burn clear in the bottom of the pump well, where the worst air lodges, as being the lowest and greatest vacancy in ship's holds; and all water pumps, will act the part of air pumps, or ventilators, as it is known that the water would not rise to the sucking pumps, if the air was not first pumped out of them. And as Guinea ships, whilst the slaves are on board, have their large close fire furnace standing nearly over their pump well; how easy might a short copper pipe, of about four-inch bore, be made to go into an iron nozel in the side of the furnace, and the other end on to a lead or wooden pipe of near the same bore, that might be carried down into the pump well by various ways; and as they make their fires for cooking just after midnight, which is the time when all the slaves are below, and then ventilators are most wanted, it is known from experience in ships of war, were such pipes are used, that whilst the fire burne, by its rarefaction, it will draw up and expel a constant flow of air from the pump well; so that by these means, the lowest and foulest air may be got out of ships, and the fresh air will naturally circulate and take its place.
The pressure of air.

THE power of the airs pressure on all bodies near the surface of the sea, is computed to be about fifteen pounds weight on every square inch; it presses every way in all directions, not only downwards, but slanting, sideways, and upwards, as may be seen in common without machines for that purpose, by those little round leather suckers (as they are called) used by boys at play, which when wet, and clapped upon smooth stones, press the air from between the stone and the sucker, then hawling upon the string, in the middle it makes a small vacuum or little hollow space void of air, and the airs pressure upwards opposite to the vacuum, is what the stones are lifted and carried by about the streets.

THE pressure of the air downwards is known and experienced in many cases,
The bad effects the air's pressure may have on ships, &c. which ground in mud.

and its bad effects are felt upon ships sometimes when they take out a raft port, which they think high enough out of the water when the ship is afloat; but if she after that grounds, by the tide leaving her upon mud, so as to press the water from under part of the bottom, the airs pressure downwards against that part in the mud, where there is neither air nor water, will confine the ship from rising out of the mud 'till the water flows much above her floating mark, and the water may run in at the raft-port and sink her. And in small vessels which are deep loaded, and lie a-ground upon mud, and especially if their bottoms are flat, such as a great number of vessels are which carry goods up and down rivers, when deep loaden the masters dread and avoid, as much as they can, laying them in the mud, on account of its suction, as it's commonly called, and thought to be, but is entirely owing to the airs pressure downwards, acting upon the parts where the air and water are pressed from under them, that their vessels are in danger, of sinking before they can rise or float out of the mud, and which sometimes pulls pieces of sheathing off ships bottoms, from the same cause, when the water gets between the bottom and the sheathing, and none between that and the mud. The same cause will also keep wood, or any other thing that will swim, and is lighter than water, from rising; for if their buoyancy don't lift them before the water flows upon them, the weight and pressure of the water is then added to the airs pressure downwards to prevent their rising.

IF a man, tho' famous for swiming or diving,
How mud may occasion people to be drowned.

by accident should fall, or out of bravado jump into the water to dive, if his feet only reaches the mud, and sink so far as to press the water from under them, the pressure of the air and water downwards, will hold his feet so fast, that all his struggling won't be able to relieve him: The only help that can be given him, is something that he may grasp or lay hold of with his hands before he looses his sences, or a boat-hook, &c. to hook him at all hazard, and to hawl him out of the mud.

The air's pressure is the cause of what is commonly called suction.

WHAT is commonly or vulgarly termed suction, is caused by the pressure of the air, which forces and raises the water upwards, in our common sucking-pumps, as they are called, where the working of the boxes and clappers only pump up the air first, and takes off its pressure downwards from the inside or bore of the pump, when the air pressing upon the water in the well, will make it rise to the height of thirty-three feet above its level, up a pump or pipe, where the power of the air is taken off; and quick-silver, that is about fourteen times the weight of water, will rise to about thirty-one inches in a tube or glass pipe, void of air:—And these prove a balance, or equal weight to the pressure of our air or atmosphere; and which air when in its most dense or heaviest state, will very seldom raise these fluids higher.

On the weather judg'd from the weight of the air.

BUT the air in our Northern climates is constantly varying, and is sometimes about a tenth part rarer or lighter than at other times, consequently when lightest looses, about a tenth part of its power to buoy up any matter that is floating in it, or to raise water or quick-silver, which last then stands at its lowest station in our barometers or weather-glasses, at about twenty-eight inches high, on the index where the weather is marked; the consequence of the airs being in its rarest or lightest state; is that either the watry particles floating in it will fall in snow or rain, or it is made light, by an over charge of elementary fire or sulphureous particles floating in it, by which I have had my sails stuck full of black specks, from the dews falling then upon them, when sailing upon the coast of Barbary. This inflamatory matter in the air, no doubt, is the cause of lightening and thunder; for I have seen the same sort of black specks on the sails of ships, where they have been struck and tore with lightening; and if rain, snow or thunder does not hap¦pen, a storm of wind (as mark'd on the index) is expected to be the consequence, by the airs flying or rushing along with a swift motion from where it is dense or heavier, and endeavouring to come to an equality in weight, with the place where it is rare or in its lightest state. As the air increases in its weight, it presses the heavier on the quick-silver or mercury below, and raises it proportionably higher in the tube; and when it comes to twenty-nine inches and a half, the air is then reckoned at the medium or middle state, and there the weather is mark'd changeable; but when the mercury comes to be forced above thirty inches; from that to thirty-one inches, is mark'd fair, dry, frost, serene weather, &c. as such may be expected, when the air is dense or in its heavy state; it then raises and buoys up the particles floating in it, to a greater height, where they may be separated so as to make the sky clear of clouds for a time. These are the conclusions which I imagine our Philosophers fixed on, when they endeavoured to make the barometer or air weigher, to foretel the different weather that might be expected.

BUT, (as a sailor) I venture to say,
Of the uncertainty of weather glasses.

that the weather often proves very different from what is pointed out by our weather-glasses, or by any other of those improv'd instruments or rules that have been made by later, and more accurate observers of the air and weather that I have yet seen, and I doubt their being of any great service to sea-faring people; for I have seen strong gails with a high glass, not only Easterly, (which commonly raises the mercury) but when up at thirty inches, I have known it blow strong Westerly, with rain and snow; I have likewise seen moderate and fair weather, with the mercury as low as twenty-eight inches three tenths. I have been in the open ocean along way from any land, in moderate and fair weather, sailing pleasantly along, when suddenly the ship has been struck with a single flash of lightning: This inflamable matter in the air, like electrical matter, seemed to take fire at the touch of the ship's masts.

BUT in justice to barometers, I must own I had once,
A storm once pointed out by the weather glass.

and but once, the advantage of a true admonition of an approaching storm of wind, from Tampion's portable barometer, which I carried to sea with me as a weather-glass for some time; and this happened at the mouth of the English channel, when about seventy vessels sailed from the Downs, with a moderate breeze in the S. E. quarter. In the morning after leaving the Downs. I perceived a sudden fall of the quick-silver, from about twenty-nine inches and a half, to about twenty-eight inches and a half; we had then all our small sails set; on this alteration, I ordered all hands to work, and took in our small sails, got down top-gallant yards, and did all that was thought most necessary, to prepare for an approaching storm, which came on about eight in the evening, when we were a-breast of the Lizard; the wind from being moderate at S. S. E. came suddenly to N. N. W. and blowed so strong, that tho' we had no sails loose but the fore-sail in the brails, yet it laid the ship more down on her broadside than ever I knew her, by any stress or pressure of sails. This sudden change of weather, and of the wind to the opposite point of the compass, probably proved of bad consequence to all who were unprepared for it. The next morning we saw a Dutch or Danish ship, floating bottom up, which we supposed was loaded with timber, and had been overset by this unexpected storm, taking her a-back with all sails set, and the accounts we had afterwards, were, that most of this fleet suffered damage.

On the defects of a weather glass for sea service.

BUT I must acknowledge a defect in this portable barometer, for sea service, which is, that the quick-silver always kept the ships motion up and down, so that its height, must be taken from the medium of that motion; and I never had the opportunity of meeting with the marine barometer, such as was carried to sea by the great Doctor Hally, and which I judge from its not being continued in practice, has not answered the commendable design, of giving some certainty of the weather, to ships at sea: Yet it must be allowed, that the discovery of these properties in the air or atmosphere, has proved of great advantage in the management of pumps and syphons, or crooked pipes to raise water, and in many other useful inventions.

On WIND.

WIND may be said to be only the air moving over the surface of our globe, from one place where it is heavier, towards another place where it is lighter, which difference occasions its different directions; and the swiftness of its motion, is in proportion to the different densities of the air in different places, as PROVIDENCE has pleased to order it for many valuable purposes.

WE call it calm, when the air is without motion; but when the air moves, we call it wind; and its power is calculated to increase, in proportion to the square of its velocity or swiftness with which it flies, which is at the rate of about sixty miles an hour, in one of the greatest storms in our climate, as the ingenious Smeaton has shewn in his table of winds, after he had found out what may be called the fix'd standard for wind-mill sails, from ingenious experiments, which I have seen him make in a close room; for the air though at rest, or in a calm, will act upon any body that is put in motion, as so much wind of the same swiftness. Suppose a ship launching in a calm to gain a velocity, or run at the rate of a mile in a minute, at this time, the ship will feel the same effect from this calm, as one of our greatest storms of a mile in a minute or sixty miles an hour, would have had upon her stern, when she was fast upon the stocks; and a ship launched with the same velocity, and in the same direction with this storm of wind, would feel it calm, for the time the run as fast as the wind blowed, as may be noticed, when it happens that ships are launched with a brisk wind, and their colours blowing aft, the same way they are to run, when they come to a quick motion in launching, their colours flie fored for that time. And when any body is put into so quick a motion through the air, as not to give the air time to close behind it, in that case it makes in some degree, a vacuum, and in proportion to this vacuum, there will not only be the resistance, but the pressure of the air, acting upon these bodies, which may be near fifteen pounds upon every square inch; and this may be the reason why ships masts and yards, some times are rowl'd away in a calm, when they are put into so very quick motion, by a laboursome ship's rowling. A ship under way in a calm, where there is a strong tide or current, will be affected as if a light air or gentle wind was right against and in proportion to the strength of the tide or current. As the wind happens to blow with or against the tide or current, a ship will feel less or more wind in proportion to the rate of the tide or current.

WIND in many instances is altered from its natural direction,
On eddy winds, and how the wind is altered from its natural direction

as in a narrow river, that has high land, or high trees close to the water, on each side, there the wind commonly blows either right up or right down the river. When the wind blows right across a river, or right off any high land, or when a ship is close under high land, when it blows strong, they often feel such gusts of eddy winds in all directions, that ships pendants are sometimes seen to be blown right up in the air; in such situations, they can't trim their square-sails fast enough to any advantage, therefore it is best to have the square-sails close furl'd; and if any sails can be of advantage, it must be the stay-sails, mizen, boom-sails, try-sails, and such others, as may be worked without laying so long aback, as to give the ship stern-way.

A SHIP sailing close by the wind, one particle or part of air, drives off the other from the lee or after-leach of the sail, which turns the wind from its direction for a little time, as may be noticed, by a ships after-sails being obliged to be trim'd sharper than her head-sails, and her ensign not flying above three points to leeward, when the ship is sailing near six points from the wind.

WHEN ships are sailing quartering, or before the wind, the wind then blows perpendicular to, or right upon the sails, which makes them bag more, or form a hollow, so that the wind when it blows strong, may compress the air in the belly of the sail, into less compass than its natural state, for air contrary to all other fluids has that property, that it may be compressed into a very small space, as is known by charging and discharging of wind-guns, &c.

On WATER.

The proporties, of water.

WATER is a fluid element, capable to float ships, and Philosophers tell us, that the particles or single parts of water are so small, that their form can't be preceived by the best microscopes, or greatest magnifying glasses; but that they must be round and smooth, from their moving so freely one amongst another; and from their easily giving way, and opening a passage for all bodies moving therein: And particles of water must be hard, and touch each other, as it is known from experience, that water can't be compressed or forced into less compass than its natural bulk, by any power or weight that can be employed upon it, and as action and re-action are equal and contrary to each other, it re-acts as it is acted upon.

WATER will float the greatest or heaviest bodies that take up more room in water than it self, and ships, boats, or vessels, with all they contain in or about them, and all other things that will float in water, are exactly the same weight as the bulk of water they displace, by the bulk of that part of their bodies actually in the water, and below their swiming mark, which is lower down or higher up, according to the weight or density of the water they swim in; for ships are known to swim lighter in salt water than in fresh, in proportion as the salt is heavier than fresh: Therefore, suppose a pint of water to weigh a pound, (as it does or thereabouts in common) and any thing that will swim in water and weigh a pound, put into a vessel full of water, will displace or make run over, its own bulk of water to its swimming mark, a pint for a pound. The same rule holds good to ships of the greatest burden, or to other bodies according to their bulk.

THE power and pressure of water is known to increase according to its altitude, regardless of its quantity, for suppose a tight dock to be made, that would nearly fit to the shape of the bottom of one of our first rate ships of war to her floating mark, half an inch or the least thickness of water would lift and float this ship, as effectually as the whole ocean; for water like other fluids, presses equally in all directions; therefore, the water must press equally against the ship, as it does against the dock, which must consequently float the ship as soon as the water comes to the height of her floating mark: And suppose this dock could be filled with water when the ship is out of it, it would weigh the same as did the ship with all her materials then in and about her, and the small quantity of water which floated her.

A ship which has the flatest part of her bottom lying sixteen feet deep,
On the pressure of water and leaks at different depths.

(which is often the case) the water then presses sixteen times, as much upwards against this flat part, as it does on any part of the same ship about the waters edge, and so on to any other part according to its depth. And suppose this ship to have four leaks or plug holes of equal bigness, that could be drove out occasionally, the first at one foot under water, the second at four feet, the third at nine feet, and the lowest at sixteen feet in the flat part of her bilge; that hole at four feet deep would leak or let in as much water again in the same time, as that at one foot deep; and that at nine feet, three times as much; and that at sixteen feet, four times as much, though it run into the ship upwards; and so on in proportion to the square root of the height of the water above the leak or plug hole; therefore leaks in ships are more or less dangerous, according to their depth under water.

THE great Doctor Halley says,
Different shaped bottles la
•

ke by the waters pressure. that the pressure of the water thirty-three feet deep, (which is equal to the pressure of our atmosphere) pressed the natural air into half its space in his diving-hell. I have tried experiments on the pressure of water upon bottles of different shapes, cork'd up without any thing in them but common air, making them fast to a lead-line just above the lead, when two common square flat sided case-bottles, which would hold about three half pints each, broke at the depth of between six and seven fathom; but two oval form'd thin Florence flasks about the same size, bore the pressure to about fifteen fathom deep; and a quart bottle round one way, but having two sides somewhat flated, bore about fifteen fathom; and a round common quart bottle, broke only at about twenty-eight fathom. At great depths I imagine few things that are made hollow and tight, will bear the waters pressure; I have seen an instance of its great power, when by my ship driving off the bank in Gibralter Bay into deep water, our anchors would not reach the ground at a hundred fathom; and when we hove them up, we found our two new nun-buoys had their sides crushed inwards by the waters pressure.

On waves

WATER at the surface is powerfully acted upon by the wind, and by that according to its strength, which forces the water from its natural level, which it always endeavours to come to, but is prevented and disturbed by several causes acting upon it. When the water is in motion by a strong tide or current, and the wind blows strong against it, it makes the most dangerous and troublesome waves. Heigh waves at sea are supposed to move along at the rate of about twenty miles in an hour.

On SHIPS HULLS.

THOUGH I allow that planners and builders of ships generally know best, which form is most likely to answer the different trades or other purposes they may be designed for, yet as a seaman I hope I shall be excused in taking the liberty of giving some remarks and hints, which I think may contribute to make these most noble and useful machines less imperfect than they sometimes are.

WHEN ships are contracted for to be built, and their dimensions agreed upon, the owners commonly want what is called a long floor, which is generally reckoned to make ships have all good properties; and this long floor is made by having so many floor-timbers exactly of the same mold, laid all at equal height on a straight keel, in the mainbody, or most bearing part of the ship, and are called very properly, so many dead flats; and then the other floor timbers begin to have more rise, till they come to stand upon dead wood, towards the stem and stern-post, to form the entrance and run of the ship.

Against building sh
•

s with long straight floors.THIS method of building ships with long straight floors as above-mentioned, for many reasons may be proved to be a wrong practice, for it is well known how much greater power any great stress, by weight or pressure of fluids, has upon any body that is straight or flat, and how little they will bear in proportion to bodies that are made curv'd or some ways circular, so as to form some sort of an arch, as may be observed in those almost flat arches, which tho' made of but small and loose materials, such as brick and mortar, will bear great stress and weight upon them. And it's known from experiments by the air pump, how much less pressure of air from without, will break a vessel that is flat sided, than will break a vessel that is rounding or circular; which last will bear the whole pressure of the atmosphere without being hurt. And the experiments mentioned in the ninth page, of the pressure of water on different shaped bottles, shew us that the first square case-bottle which broke at between six and seven fathom deep, had two of its sides a little rounding outward, which two sides came up whole; but the other two being more flat were burst in, notwithstanding the extraordinary thickness of the glass, of these square bottles, compared with that of the Florence flasks, which are made like an egg shell, and which bore fifteen fathom pressure. These experiments, and what may be learned from observation, shew the bad effects which the water often has by its great power of pressing upwards against the long floor of a ship, so that it soon makes the place of these dead flats hog and become a hollow upwards, whilst the ship in her upper-works seems to keep her proper sheer; and that this is a fact, may be perceived by any one who takes the least notice, when they see long floor'd ships laid upon even ground, how the keel, and the floor'd part of the bottom bends upwards; or when put upon level blocks in a graving-dock how hard they bear upon the fore and after blocks, which blocks I have known split, and the keel damaged by the stress being much more upon its fore and after parts than on that part under the flat of the floor, and that the ship has been so strained, as to be obliged to be dock'd a second time; which must naturally weaken her, and she must carry less weight in proportion as her floor is bulged upwards, which must form one of the worst bottoms a ship can swim upon, by its being a hollow upwards, where it should be rounding downwards, which in my opinion would contribute greatly to make ships stronger to bear the pressure of the ground, as well as the water, and help their sailing, steering, staying and wareing.

FOR the above reasons, and many others which might be given,
To build ships with rounding bottoms.

I am of opinion, that all ships should be built with a root or rank end of a keel-piece fored, and which should be straight all the way below; and the upper part work'd with a curve, from the stem to the after-part of the floor, so that the fore and main part of the ship's bottom may be made to form a curve, or be rounding a little downwards, suppose with about the same sheer as ships bends have in common, and the stem should project with such a rake forward from the upper part of the keel, that all the horizontal water-lines in the ships entrance, may form curves outwards all the way, which will be less resisted in passing through the water, than those unnatural hollows which are too commonly made there, and which I have known to occasion very destructive pitching motions in a fine ship.

THE above method of building, in my opinion, would turn to the advantage of all concerned; for by the floor timbers lying so much farther forward on this curv'd part of the keel it self, without chocks, or the dead wood fored that is commonly made use of; the ship will be stronger and more buoyant, to carry more, with less timber, iron, and workmanship. I would recommend the deep end of the keel to project as far forward, before the scarf of the stem, and the fore gripe added to it, to be as rank as can with safety be fastened; this with the deepest part of the keel fored, will make up for what may be thought wanting in the uprightness of the stem, and the rankness of the keel under the lowest flooring, to help the ship sailing by the wind. The stern post should have no more rake aft, than just to make the back of the rudder stand upright when the ship is upon an even keel; and the run, or after-part of the bottom, to be according to the main and fore-part: If built full for burden at a small draft of water, the run in proportion to be fuller and shorter, to make her answer this purpose. But if the ship is to be built sharp, for sailing fast by the wind, as well as with the wind large; then she will require a long run, drawn fair, without any extraordinary full part in the water, to hinder it from rising, and closing to its level again, regularly and readily in proportion, as the body of the ship may be forced through the water, without making a great eddy, or carrying much dead water after her. But sharpness may be carried to an extreme, for ships require a spreading body at the water's edge, both afore and abaft, to support them from being plung'd too deep into the sea, and gives the water more after-body to act upon as it rises and closes abaft, to help the ship forward in her progressive motion, when sailing fast.

Differ¦ence of sharp and full ships sailing.

FROM experience I can say, that the sharp and slight built ships will sail faster, than the firm and full built in little winds; though when it blows strong, they won't bear to be pressed with sail, above certain degrees to advantage, but otherwise; then the fuller and stronger built ship will have the advantage by bearing pressure of sail, and will then perform better in proportion to the strength with which the wind blows.

I have sailed in a ship built full for carrying, in the East India trade, which was took by a French squadron, in little wind; but when the wind blew strong, she could be the headmost and weather-most ship in the fleet. The last war but one I commanded a ship remarkably sharp and slight; she was built at Malta for a cruising ship, from the timbers of their old Galleys; she measured above 330 tons, was 88 feet keel, and 27 feet beam, she was built low, with a shallow shelving bottom every way. In chasing with this ship, when little wind and a head sea, we have steered right up to the chase, when all their endeavours could not keep their ships head to the sea, but lay broadside to the waves. A small pressure of wind and sail, would put this shell of a ship to her utmost speed, and when the wind blew with a velocity of about thirty miles an hour, I reckoned (in sailing large) we could make her go at the rate of about eleven miles an hour; therefore we never desired more wind but rather less than that, to give us all the advantages we wanted in cruising against our enemies, so as to be able to take or leave as we pleased. In tacking this ship, when it blowed so fresh that we could just carry whole topsails, we found our advantage in hawling up the mainsail and foresail, to make her sure in staying, otherwise she would get sternway so quickly, as to prevent her coming about: this bad property I attributed to the lightness of the ship's body, which could not bear so much sail aback, without losing her headway; and the long time she took to bring the wind a-head, was probably occasioned by her length being out of proportion to her breadth, for a ready and close turning ship. This ship had another great defect, viz. want of her bow's being fuller, at, and above the water's edge, which would make little or no resistance in the water, to hinder ships sailing in fine weather, but is a great help to their sailing, by keeping them from plunging so much into the sea, in bad weather, which was the case with this ship when pressed hard with sail upon a wind, for in a great sea, her bow's being like a wedge, she plunged herself under, forward, which not only hindered her sailing so fast as she would have done, but occasioned her straining, to such a degree at those times, that we were obliged to add b•iling to pumping, to keep the water from gaining upon us.—This is mentioned to shew, that shape and proportion are of the greatest consequence in the structure of the hull of a ship, with respect to her sailing, as well as to her strength.

Advantages attend¦ing round¦ing bottoms.

WHAT I contend for is, that all ships, whether full for burden, or sharp for sailing, should be built with the full parts of their bottoms to form an arch downward, instead of having long straight floors as has been mentioned as it is well known when a round cannon ball is shot slanting into the water, the reaction of the water makes it rise into the air several times, before it immerses and sinks, tho' it is about eight times heavier than its bulk of water, which will naturally act with the same principles upon ships which have their bottoms somewhat circular all the way, as they are forced forward through the water, the entrance and forebody of the ship in the water, have the passage to open, by dividing and sinking the particles of water, till they have passed the main frame, or lowest flooring; the reaction of the water upwards against this shaped bottom, will naturally tend to lighten or lift the ship from plunging into the sea, all the way that there is any resistance, which I reckon ceases at the lowest main frame, for there the water begins to rise and close again to come to its level, which in my opinion must act upon the tapered after body, and run if well formed, so as to help the ship forward in her progressive motion: And she will naturally act and turn upon this lowest part of the bottom, because within this main or midship frame must be the center of the greatest cavity, or hollow part of the ship's hold: and thereabout will be the center of gravity of the ship and all that she contains, and will thereby become the center of motion: and the water's pressure upwards being greatest against this lowest part of the bottom, all will contribute naturally to make this the proper center for the ship to turn upon, to make her more manageable in steering, staying, or wareing; and this last is a very valuable property, for it is most commonly wanted when ships are in the greatest danger, and expeditiously performed may be the saving of the whole; and this seems to be pointed out by natural judgment, and what may be seen in the mechanism of nature; and the curve of a ship's bends and upper works (so as I would have their bottoms to be) don't offend but please the eye, and all straight and flat parts about a ship disgust us. The swiftest fish seen in motion at sea, as well as those fowl which swim and dive in water, are all formed with their bodies rounding, as is above recommended.

I HAD the advantages of the above recommendation farther confirmed by an accidental experiment, made by a commander of a long and flat floor'd collier cat, who is a man of veracity; he related to me, that loading his ship at Liverpool with rock salt, in order to prevent the ship from being too stiff and laboursome, he had it stowed in as short a compass as possible, in the middle or main body of the ship, and left two great empty spaces, one afore and another abaft, which occasioned the flat floor under the salt to bend downwards, and so as to make the ship very leaky, this, as may be supposed opened the butts in that part; the ship by accident came aground, when he could sensibly feel her touch first under where the salt lay, which was contrary to what he ever felt by her before, and he solemnly declared that he never knew the ship to sail, steer, stay, or ware so well before or since.

THERE is another strong circumstance, which I think is a certain sign that the rounding shaped bottom, and projecting stem, is wanted for ships in general. The best trim as they are built now is found to be by the stern, this cants the straight part of their long floors upwards, which must make a longer resistance farther aft, but then it acts in some measure, as the rounding bottomed ship would do (but to more advantage) upon an even keel, and the more upright a ship's stem is, the more she will require to be trim'd by the stern to make her stay, as well as ware readily; for the center of these turning motions will be where the center of gravity is, that is about the main frame; so that the more upright the stem is, the more it will hinder the ship turning either way so readily, and experience is the best guide in these matters. I have enquired after the properties of a ship that was built with stem and sternpost both upright; the report I had from the commander was, that her performance came far short in sailing, to what was expected, from her bottom, and that before they raised her abaft, so that she stowed more goods there, which brought her to sail two and a half feet by the stern, she oft refused either staying or wareing so readily, as other ships in company would, and now that they are obliged to sail so much by the stern, they are much plagued to get the anchors up from under the keel or fore foot, which may be of bad consequence where there is little room to get under way, so that the projecting stem gives great ease in getting the anchors up readily, as well as helps a ship greatly to rise and fall easy, and prevents her from being pressed or plunged deep into the sea; for these and many other good reasons the stem should keep projecting as high as the upper deck.

THUS I have endeavoured to prove, that to make vessels pass through the water with the least resistance, and give them the best properties for managing them under sail, they should have a projecting stem; the bearing part of the bottom should form an arch downwards, the lowest flooring at the main frame, and what is called the floor, should be with about the same sheer as the lower part of the bends, and the sternpost so near upright, that the back of the rudder may stand perpendicular to the keel.
Rounding bottoms would take the g
•

ound with the least damage. This form of a ship's bottom, in my opinion, will also recommend itself to take the ground with the least damage, for it is well known that a ship strains and receives damage, less or more, in proportion as she sits upright, or lays along on one side, and what makes a ship lie along so much upon level ground, but the present practice of having a rank or deep keel under the main body of the ship, which cants her over so far, that the ends of the floorings or lower futtocks bear the stress upon the ground, by which they are often broke, and if the ship has a long straight floor, it is liable to be bent upwards, which causes the whole frame to strain the more, by being thus unnaturally constructed.

WHERE ships are liable or are designed to take the ground, as in dry tide harbours, the rounding bottoms will certainly answer that purpose best, as they may be built either full for carrying, or sharp for sailing, as occasion may require; with little or no depth of keel under the main body, so as not to make them lie a long, but as they may sit quite upright, upon level ground; which will make the principal weight and stress tend towards the middle of the lowest flooring, under the main or midship frame; where the center of gravity of the whole will be accumulated and supported, as upon the crown of an inverted arch, which form must be allowed to be capable of bearing the most pressure, with the least damage; and to lay the greatest strain where it ought to be, upon the middle or strongest part of the floor timbers.

To answer the objections which may be made to the want of a deep keel in the midships, on account of strength, or sailing upon a wind, or beating on the ground, 1st. I say, that making the kelson larger, and its bent downward, along with the ceiling and outside plank in this part, will greatly make up above what may be thought a deficiency in strength. 2d. To make the ship hold an equal wind, it has been observed, that what keel may be wanting under the midship frame, is made up by what is added forward, under the scarf of the stem; and suppose a ship's keel in common to be a foot deep, all the way fore and aft, and suppose the rounding bottom'd ship to have but six inches keel, under her midship frame, and to have eighteen inches under the scarf of the stem, this will make up that deficiency forward; and abaft the run becomes so sharp and thin, that the plank lies almost upright with the plain surface of the keel and sternpost. And as to striking on the ground, if the ground is nearly level, ships commonly destroy the two ends of the keel before the midship is hurt, and if they come to roll much upon their keels, the rounding bottom will have the advantage, in proportion as the keel is shallower a midships; the stroke will be less, and lower down under the main floorings, where the ship by this form of construction is strongest, and most able to bear repeated shocks.

On Hanging SHIPS RUDDERS.

SHIPS are sometimes lost, by having their rudders beaten off in striking upon the ground, which may be prevented by a method of hanging rudders, practised at Parkgate, and which I think deserves particular notice, and especially, where the navigation is among shoals, or where ships are liable to strike upon the ground; this method permits the rudder to rise about 20 inches, by having bands upon the rudder, the same as are in common upon the sternpost, with a long iron spindle, to go through the eyes of all these bands, and which permits the rudder to rise and fall, as the ship happens to strike; and from the good report of foreign ships, as well as coasters, that have tried this method, I think it ought to become more general, where the rudder head comes upon deck, or where it can be contrived to let the rudder and tiller rise high enough for this purpose, which will save the stress from the sternpost, as well as the rudder from breaking and unshipping, which is often the case from the present practice, by having those short irons upon the rudder, that are chock'd and stopt, to prevent the rudder unshipping.

On HAUSE HOLES.

THE many disadvantages that I have seen to attend hause holes being too small, makes me mention here, that it is absolutely necessary, that all hause holes should be made big enough at first, to admit the ship's cables when spliced with a short splice, to go freely through them.

On MASTS and YARDS.

I PROFESS myself an advocate for tall masts, and short yards, from the example of ships in the coal and timber trades to the city of London, and from the experience I have had in ships sailing faster upon a wind, from shortning their yards, which must ease them by making every thing lighter, in proportion as the yards are shorter; even the expence is less at first fitting out, and to the ship and every thing aloft in wear and tear afterwards, and in sailing her with fewer hands.

ALL masts which are to be made from crooked poles, should be made and fitted to stand with the back aft, that is with the projecting or crooked ends forward, which will make them stand upright without that great stress upon the stays, that has to act against all the other rigging, to prevent the masts heads from raking too much aft, which is most commonly the case.

THE method we now practice of having few blocks, and little to phamper aloft, for ease and neatness, is certainly right, and should be pursued as far as it can with safety, but I would advise not to carry this fashion to an extreme, by having too many sheave holes cut in the mast heads, for I have known many top masts break in the place of the sheeve holes, under the rigging.

Topgallantmast going up and down abaft the topmasts, I have found from experience, answers many good purposes in a cruising ship, and a great advantage to a ship that has much to turn to windward, as they may be struck, and kept close struck occasionally, with the whole topsails atrip.

On SHIPS SAILS.

THE square sails, suitable to taunt masts and short yards, as here recommended, will be in proportion, deep and narrow, which will trim and stand much fairer upon a wind, than if they were shallow and broader; and if the ship's imploy require it, will admit of larger staysails, such staysails as are now made with judgment, not to hoist too high at the back of the square sails, to shake the wind out of them, but which permit all the sails to stand to great advantage, clear of each other, as may be seen in the front plate, where the ship is represented in a light breeze sailing close by the wind.

To endeavour to make a ship sail by the wind,
Narrow deep square sails recommended.

and turn well to windward, deserves the greatest regard, because, safety, as well as many other great benefits depend upon it. The good effects of deep and narrow squaresails, can't be better recommended to answer this purpose, than by the performance of ships in the coal and timber trades to London, tho' the design'd properties in building and fitting these ships, are burden at a small draft of water, to take and bear the ground well, and to sail with few hands, and little ballast, yet these ships perform so well at sea, that the goverment often makes choice of them for store ships, in the most distant naval expeditions; and in narrow channels among shoals, and turning to windward in narrow rivers, there are no ships of equal burthen can match them, for which I attribute a great deal, to their deep narrow squaresails, which may be perceived to trim so flat and fair, upon a wind, that all the canvass stands full, at a proper angle from the directions of the keel, so that the wind goes freely off from the lee leach of these sails, without being much altered in its direction from one sail to the back of the next, which is not the case, when a ship's squaresails are so broad as to overlap each other much, one sail then shakes the next to it, and they extend so far to leeward, that the lee sheets make the afterpart of the canvass, or lee leaches, stand rather, as so much back sail to stop the ships way, or only to press the ship's side down and to leeward, which is the effect of all the canvass in a ships sails, when it does not stand at a proper angle with the direction of the keel, when a ship is sailing close by the wind. Where a deal of canvass is wanted, to sail fast large, the narrow deep squaresails have in height, what they want in breadth; and all the flying sails, including the topgallantsails as such, being all of lighter canvass, may be made as large as things will admit of, to answer this purpose in little winds; and when it comes to blow so strong, that these flying sails can't be carried, then the standing squaresails will be found broad enough.

I HAD the yards of a frigate-built ship shortened so much, and the mainsail made in proportion so narrow, that the maintack was hauled down through iron-bound blocks which hook'd to eye-bolts within board, fix'd for that purpose, and which made the sail to stand much better, and work much easier than when at the chestree without board.

Foretacks to stand as far to windward as maintacks.

THE foretacks of all ships should be made to stand by bumkins, or at the cat-heads, as far to windward as the maintacks, by which I have experienced, the foresails will stand as near or nearer the wind, than the mainsail will when trim'd at the same angle, for the same reasons, a collier's foretopsail stands upon a wind without a bowline, as the wind acts upon the head sails, without being turned more aft from one sail to the other abaft it.

The angles ships sails stand at, upon a wind.

I HAVE taken the angles that the principal sails stand at, from the direction of the keel, on board of a ship and sloop as they have been turning to windward with a pleasant breeze; the ship's mainsail and foresail, with their topsails and topgallantsails above them trim'd, and stood at three points of the compass, which was at just half the angle the ship stem'd from the direction of the wind, which was at six points upon each tack, but the crossjackyard at the same time required to be braced up to two points, and the mizentopsail-yard to a point and a half, so that the plain or body of the mizentopsail stood at a point and three quarters, or nineteen degrees; the mizen stood at about a point and a half or seventeen degrees, and the staysails between the masts stood at about the same angle seventeen degrees, when drawing full, and by the wind. The sloop stem'd at five points of the compass from the direction of the wind, when her mainsail, foresail, and jib stood at about half that angle, or two points and a half from the direction of the keel upon each tack.

Setting many sails in an easy manner.

IN ships designed to carry many small sails in little winds, I have had the experience of turning to windward with thirty effectual sails, set in a simple easy manner, and had them drawn, when in real practice at sea, and they were as is represented in the front plate; besides two jibs, foretopmaststaysail, spritsail and spritsailtopsail, which are known to stand very well upon a wind, we had a forestaysail stood very well by our foremast standing well aft, and the foretack well to windward, as before recommended; and by having two sheeves in each truck, at our long topgallant mafts heads, we hoisted the topgallant royals up to the trucks by the sheeves on one side, and the main and mizen spindle staysails by the sheeves on the other side of the trucks, at the main and mizen topgallant mafts heads, we set a gaff topsail with a light yard slung by the thirds, hoisted up through a block at the after part of the cap at the mizentopmasthead, the tack hauled down on the weather side, to the after corners of the mizen top, and the sheet to the gaff end; this sail was easier managed and stood to more advantage than when set with a cumbersome heavy gaff, rigged at the mizentopmast head for that purpose; we set a large driver with a light pole for a boom, with two tail blocks at the small or outer end, which we run out aft on either side, and lashed it to the rail, so that the blocks on the outer end stood right aft, facing the middle of the stern, upon either tack, the driver slung by the third of the yard, like a log sail hoisted within about four feet of the end of the mizen gaff, which was about three feet longer than the mizen required it, on account of this sail; the tack hauled down to the weather quarter piece on either tack, and the sheet to the block amidships, with a bowline hauled to the mizen mast, which made the sail stand fair upon a wind, at an angle of about a point and a half, or sixteen degrees from the direction of the keel, we set a foretopmast studding sail for a water sail, the yard slung by the third, hauled out to the other tail block at the boom end, with the straight leach or the sheet clew uppermost, and made fast to the weather corner of the stern rail, and the lower clew had two sheets or lines led into the aftermost gunport or scupper in the waist on each side, so that in tacking when the wind was near a-head, we shifted the forepart of these sails to the weather side, which trim'd them ready for the other tack, by which they prevented the ship from falling too much off, and had good effect upon her sailing in a light breeze of wind; but when it came to blow fresh, the wind reflected from the mizen, shook the driver so much that we took it in when sailing close by the wind, and when we rigged in the boom, it lay snug fore and aft on one side, stopt to the rail and was much more out of the way than a cumbersome heavy yard, which is often used for a driver boom, and which lying across is inconvenient, and holds wind when the ship is sailing close haul'd, and can only serve to set the •ail to advantage, when sailing with the wind quartering, or before it.

IN sailing any thing from the wind, to right before it,
On sailing lage with ma¦ny sail.

we easily shifted our driver boom to different parts of the stern, and by the heel ropes at the heaviest end within board, trim'd it as the wind required, so as to make the driver and water sail stand as fair and as far, or farther out from the ship, than could be done by a yard across for a boom, as above mentioned. We set topgallant studding sails, without troublesome and cumbersome booms on the topsail yards, by having thimbles fixed at the outer end of the topmast studding sail yards, we kept the tacks reeved and both ends made fast to the inner yard arm, so that they could be come at from the topsail yard arm, to bend the tack and haul it out, which spread the sails and made them stand very well, and shew'd with the driver and water sail as in plate the 1st, where the ship is represented sailing with all sails set, with the wind quartering. But I must own we were obliged to stop the inner yard arm of the topmast studding sail, with the outer gasket of the topsail yard arm, when the sail was set abaft the topsail, to prevent the outer yard arm from flying forward.

IT is said that we have ships that will bear and carry sail so as to get to windward, or keep clear of a lee shore, as long as canvass will stand; in such a case safety must often depend upon the sails, therefore the method of making them should have all the strength that can be given to prevent their splitting in times of danger.

Sails how strengthened in the making.

IT would contribute greatly to make canvass stand a storm, and wear much longer, if the sails were made with robbin, gromet, and point holes, in the middle of every seam, and about half an inch lower down in the sail, than those holes that are found necessary to be between the seams, and which fall in the single part of the canvass, by this method the greatest strain will be upon the seams, which are the strongest parts of a sail, and will bear a greater stress than they will by the present practice of making all the above holes in the single part of the canvass, clear of the seams, which is done to avoid as I suppose, cutting and sewing through so many fold of canvass, for there is now made about the same quantity of holes as I would wish to recommend here, that is a hole in each seam and one midway between, which is enough for any sail, and for the sail that reefs by the foot, a point hole in each seam is found sufficient.

I HAVE tried to manage the sails in a cruizing vessel, and in codsmacks a fishing, with robbins and points in the seamed parts of the sails only, in order to reef and unreef them with more expedition, and lay the more stress where the principal strength of the sails lay, but found from experience that it requires robbins and points in the middle part of each cloth, to confine the sails cleverly to the yards and gaffs; therefore the holes that are made in the single part of the canvass ought to be a little higher up in the sail, that the principal stress may be upon the seams which I reckon is about three times as strong as the single part of the canvass. When the sail is seam prick'd, as all the foul weather sails ought to be, in a zigzag or serpentine manner, as soon as they are stretched a little by wear, so that if the sails are not confined to the yard, stays and gaffs, more by the seam'd part of the sail than by the single canvass, the weight of the seams will contribute to split and wear out the single canvass much sooner, especially when the sails flap hard in gales of wind, or when obliged to carry sail in little wind with a great rolling sea.

INSTEAD of cutting these holes through so many folds of canvass at random with a knife, I take the liberty to recommend to have a round hollow tool or gouge with a mallet, and a block upon the knees, for the purpose of cutting the holes more regular.

On RIGGING and ROPES.

WE should avoid all unnecessary rigging, as well as blocks, for every thing that the wind blows upon, about a ship, that don't stand in the plane of direction with the sails, is a hindrance to the ship's sailing upon a wind, therefore the running rigging should not go double, where single will answer the purpose. Those stays to the long topgallantmasts heads, and the close net-work with bobs, which I have seen hanging under the fore part of ships tops are useless tophamper, and crowfeet there, in my opinion, do more harm than good.

WHERE the jibboom is to go through anupright cap at the bowsprit end, (which is certainly the best way) the end of the bowsprit through the cap, should be left long enough for the collar of the foretopmast-stay to lie under it, and spread on each side of the cap, which answers good purposes, in keeping the stay so much farther forward, it stays the mast better, and a larger foretopmast-staysail may be set to advantage, and lets the jibboom go freely out and in as occasion may require.

I have experienced the advantage of having the topsail yards, as well as the lower yards, rigged to hoist with a double block with two straps upon the yard, to make the sheaves stand fore and aft, and a double block with a long double strap before the crosstrees, with a leading block at the mast head, to go as geers, instead of tyes, which are constantly chassing in the tye block upon the yards, by the sheave standing athwart the same way with the rolling motion of the ship, which makes the tyes so often break, but by the above method as geers, the sheaves of the blocks standing fore and aft, prevent the chaffing by the ships rolling motion.

I AM surprized to see continued in some ships, the old practice of having the mizentopsail braces and bowlines go across, when they do as well on the same side, and gives a clear opening to set a large mizentopmast staysail to great advantage.

I WOULD advise to have all ropes above six inches round, to be cable or double laid,
Ropes above six inches to be cable laid.

that is with nine strands, instead of three, with the same number of yarns; for reason as well as experience teaches us, that all single or shroud laid ropes with three strands only, and above six inches round, the outside yarns in each strand are strained in making the rope hard enough, by being worm'd or twisted round at so great a distance from the center, that the yarns about the middle of the strands are by that means made to be slack, so that before they come to bear a strain, the outside yarns must be broke, that this is a fact may be perceived when opening a strand of a large shroud-laid rope, one sees there the inside yarns are drawn up slack, when the outside yarns are worn out and broke, for which reason I would recommend the standing rigging above six inches to be cable laid, with the same quantity of yarns, which will be stronger than the shroud-laid rope, in proportion, as all the yarns lie in a straighter direction with the length of the rope, consequently, they all bear more equally a part of the strain.

I HAVE tried the strength of a number of threads together, made fast to a scale beam, first, laid in a straight direction, without any twist, like to a solvigee; second, the same number moderately twisted; third, an equal quantity twisted more, and found from repeated experiments, that those with the moderate twist, bore the greatest weight before they broke, and that a number of threads joined together will not bear a proportional weight to one of them singly, that is, ten threads comes a great way short of bearing ten times the weight that one thread bore singly, and I reckon the case is the same with a rope and one of its yarns.

On STOWING and TRIMMING a SHIP.

A Ship sailing, steering, staying and waring, and being lively and comparitively easy at sea in a storm, in my opinion, depends greatly on the cargo, ballast, or other materials, being properly stowed according to their weight and bulk, and the proportional dimentions of the built of the ship, which may be made too crank, or too stiff, to pass through the ocean with safety; which makes this branch of knowledge of such consequence, that rules for it ought to be endeavoured after, if, but to prevent, as much as possible, the danger of a ship oversetting at sea, or being so laboursome as to roll away her masts, &c. by being improperly stowed, which is often the case.

BUT this subject requires and deserves encouragement for the labour of some of our greatest mathematicians, to account from fix'd principles, and give reasons, why ships, or the same ship, may be thus differently effected by stowage, so as to instruct seamen in this most important point of duty, because, success, as well as safety, may greatly depend upon it; for it is known that our government has had two ships of war built by the same mold, fitted out in the same manner, and with the same materials, as near as possible, yet one ship answered much better than the other, this can only proceed from different management, which induces me, sailor-like, not to halt before I find myself quite lam'd, but to push forward, at all hazard, to endeavour to explain what I know, from experience and observation, which I hope will be found of some service, if it but induces others more capable, to consider and treat on this most important subject, with that attention and to that extent it deserves.

WHEN a ship is new, it is prudent to consult the builder, who may be supposed acquainted with the ship of his own planning, and most likely to judge what her properties will be, to advise how the cargo or materials, according to the nature of them, ought to be disposed of to advantage, so as to put her in the best sailing trim; but I would recommend trials at every favourable opportunity afterwards, to find out or to confirm which is the best trim of a ship for sailing; as experience is the only guide.

I was in a fine ship which did not sail to expectation,
Experience the only method for finding ships best sailing trim.

and the fault was always laid on her not being stowed to swim at her proposed trim, which was so much by the stern, that a full part coming into the water aft near her loading mark, prevented her stowing the cargo so as to bring her to that designed trim, but when the experiment came to be tried, to swim her more upon an even keel, so as to keep the too full part more out of the water, the ship then sailed much better. I have been cruizing in concert with a ship that we outsailed every way, but by their taking their anchors from her bows and stowing them abaft the bitts, gave her the advantage in outsailing us after that, both by the wind and large.

What sort of ships may require different management in stowing.

SHIPS must differ in their form and proportional dimentions, to make them answer their different purposes, they will require different management, in the stowage, which ought not to be left to meer chance, or done at random, as goods or materials happen to come to hand, which is too often the cause, that such improper stowage makes ships unfit for sea, therefore the stowage should be considered, planned, and contrived according to the built and properties of the ship, and which if they are not known should be enquired after; if she is narrow and high-built in proportion, so that she will not shift herself without a great weight in the hold, it is a certain sign that this ship will require a great part of heavy goods, ballast, or materials laid low in the hold, to make her stiff enough to bear sufficient sail, without being in danger of oversetting. But a ship that is built broad and low, in proportion, so that she is stiff and will support herself without any weight in the hold, this ship will require heavy goods, ballast, or materials stowed higher up, to prevent her from being too stiff, and laboursome at sea, so as to endanger her masts being rolled away, and the hull worked loose and made leaky.

The bad consequence attending ships too crank or too stiff

I SPEAK from experience, having been in ships of both extremes, some too crank, and others too stiff, and I have been in company with a ship so stowed as to be so crank as proved fatal to her and crew, which last is the most dangerous of the two extremes.

THE bad consequence of a ship being too stiff, I experienced in one of the Governments old twenty gun ships, which was bought and fitted out with lighter guns and materials than she formerly carried, and was loaded with a general cargo of different goods for the West-Indies, she was but about fourteen days at sea, when down came our main yard, occasioned by the new main tye, being chafed to pieces in the middle of the rope, or inside of the strands, by one strand rubbing against the other, from the ships extraordinary quick rolling motion, and which soon wore out the other rigging, and also work'd loose the hull in proportion. With quite a full ship from Jamaica, we have rolled away a new set of main lanyards in one night, though we used in the stowing her, all possible means that the goods of the different cargoes we carried would admit of, so as to lay the heaviest part as high in the middle of the ship as we could, to overcome this bad property; notwithstanding which when in company with other ships, in fine weather, sailing before the wind with a long following swell of a sea, they all carried their topgallantsails and studding sails, without any inconveniency or danger, when we were obliged to take in our studdingsails, topgallantsails, &c. and lower the topsails half mast, to save the topmasts from being rolled away. We loaded a cargo of lead and leather, &c. for Leghorn, and stowed the lead upon a great height of leather, which we screwed down with boards upon it, to support the lead at a proper height, to keep the ship tolerable easy in the sea, which answered our design, the first part of the passage very well, but the ship working by the motion of the sea, occasioned the lead by its weight to press the leather a great deal lower, in the latter part of the passage, by which she became so laboursome as to roll away two topmasts in spite of our best endeavours. This experience convinced me, that this ship was too broad, and her decks say too low in proportion for a merchant ship, for carrying general cargoes to the best advantage, but she was more fit for what she was first designed, viz. to carry heavy guns and heavy materials above water, which could counterpoise and make her more easy in great seas.

BUT there are good properties mix'd with bad ones, in ships of all constructions, the above mentioned ship was so stiff without ballast, that we have laid in an open road with the topmasts an end, and guns upon deck with a clean swept hold, ready for her cargo, and we had the advantage of carrying a pressing sail, with an upright side upon a wind, our principal care was to look up at the mast to see how much they bent, to prevent their being carried away, when the crank ship's side would be pressed down, and make her go heeling much along at the same time. But when two ships of these different properties, meet with turbulent dangerous high waves, then the extraordinary stiff ship, will be so laboursome by a quick jerking deep rolling motion, as not only to endanger the loss of the sails, rigging, and masts, but the hull may be work'd loose and made leaky, by the same violent rolling motion, when the crank ship in company at the same time, may be comparitively easy in rising and falling with the waves, without that destructive rolling motion; for when she is turned upon one side, by the force of the wind or waves, her recovery is so slow, that a danger is apprehended of her not rising upright again, which slow motion is the cause that she receives little or no damage, when the stiff ship may be greatly distressed.

The medium of being neither too stiff nor too crank to be endeavour'd after.

THIS shows there must be a medium for the best proportioned breadth of a ship, according to her designed business, and which should be endeavoured after, that she may be stowed neither too crank nor too stiff, and which is such as to admit the ship to yield or heel to her sails, when the masts are in danger of being carried away by being overpressed, for that ship is sufficiently stiff for any purpose, that will bear to carry away her masts before she will overset, if this trim could be hit upon, by any rules for the construction and stowing of a ship, it would be of great advantage to make them pass through the ocean with more case, and consequently, less damage, for the overstiff ship, when pres'd hard with sail, strains every thing imperceptably to a dangerous degree, and to guard against her masts being carried away, obliges to keep a constant looking up, to see how much they bend, which can't be so much attended to, as when the ship heels in proportion as she is overpress'd, which gives the surest warning to take in sail in proper time.

The weightiest part of the cargo or materials ought to lie in the main body of the ship.

IN order to help a ship's sailing, and to be lively and easy in her pitching, and sending motions, it should be contrived by the stowage, that the principal and weightiest part of the cargo, or materials, should lie as near the main body of the ship, and as far from the extreme ends, fore and aft, as things will admit of. For it should be considered, that the roomy part of our ships, lengthways, form a sweep or curve, near four times as long as they are broad, therefore, those roomy parts at, and above the waters edge, which are made by a full harpen, and a broad transome to support the ship steady, and keep her from plunging into the sea, and also by the entrance and run of the ship, having little or no bearing body under, for the pressure of the water to support them, therefore, should not be stowed with heavy goods or materials, but all the necessary vacancies, broken stowage, or light goods, should be at these extreme ends fore and aft, and in proportion, as they are kept lighter by the stowage, the ship will be more lively to fall and rise easy in great seas, and will contribute greatly to her working, and sailing, and to preserve her from straining and hoging, for which reason I think it a wrong practice to leave such a large vacancy in the main hatchway, as is usual to coil and work the cables, which ought to be in the fore or after hatchway, that the principal weight may be more easily stowed in the main body of the ship, above the flattest and lowest floorings, where the pressure of the water acts the more to support it, as mentioned page the 9th on the pressure of water.

On the Center of GRAVITY, MOTION and CAVITY of a SHIP.

THESE are fundamental points which are certainly in a ship; and her trim, as last mentioned, depends upon their places, but so little are they understood, as I have been told, that a great sea officer was heard to say, when his ship was labouring hard in a rough sea, how should she but roll when she had so much top-hamper? which was ascribing the effect to a wrong cause, and what will be often the case till the fundamental principles are known; I am therefore emboldened to endeavour to communicate what I have learned of these difficult points, hoping an abler pen, will some time undertake to mend and make up my defects, in the knowledge of these points, that they may become useful to seamanship.

THE center of cavity of a ship,
On the center of cavity

is a point in the middle of the hold, or hollow buoyant part of the hull, which supports her loading and her materials, but it is in reality the cavity, or the center of the bearing part of the ships body, that is immersed in the water, that acts to support her in all the different situations, and motions a ship is subject to, which occasions this center of the cavity immersed, to be always shifting its place, as the different parts of the ships hull happen to be in the water, it moves from being about the midship, when the ship swims upright and upon an even keel, to forward or aft, as the ship is trim'd more by the head or stern, and from one side to the other, in proportion as the ship is made to heel.

THE center of gravity of a ship, is a point some where in her,
And center of gra¦vity.

where the weight of the whole ship, cargo and materials in and about her is brought to a point; when the ship swims upright and upon an even keel, it is some where in a line of direction from the stem to the sternpost, and where another line would cross it about the midship frame, from one side to the other, where, if the ship could be suspended in air, she would lye in any position she was put into.

BUT the center of gravity of a ship, is always liable to alter its place, higher or lower, more forward or aft, on one side or the other, according to the stress or weight that happens to be laid, upon the different parts of the ship or her materials, not only by the management of the stowage, but by the power and pressure of the waves and wind.

Why a ship oversets and what supports her from over setting.

THE center of gravity of a ship, as in other heavy bodies, has always a tendency to descend towards the center of our globe, whether the ship is on shore or afloat, if it is not prevented from falling by a base or bottom, that spreads without this point to support it. For whenever it happens that a ship is laid on shore, and heels so much that the center of gravity overhangs that part of the ships bilge, upon the ground, that ought to support it, the ship will be sure to tumble over, if not prevented by some means. And when a ship is afloat, if ever she heels so much, that the center of gravity goes farther over to one side than the center of cavity, or the middle of the bearing part of the ships body, then immersed in the water, the ship will overset; but whilst the center of cavity immersed, goes faster and farther over to the ships side in her motions, so as to keep without the perpendicular of the center of gravity, the ship will be supported from oversetting, and the water will act upon the center of cavity immersed, in proportion to its distance without the center of gravity, with more or less power, to bring the ship upright again, as soon as the force of the wind or waves ceases, or the power or weight is taken off or shifted, that occasioned the ship to heel or turn on one side.

On the center of motion.

THE center of motion of a ship, depends upon the places of the center of cavity and gravity, as last mentioned, and as they alter, the center of motion shifts its place, but in ships, as in other heavy bodies in motion, this point always endeavours to be, at the same place with the center of gravity, and it is really so, when the center of gravity is above the surface of the water, and the ship is afloat; but when the center of gravity is below the surface of the water, and the water smooth, then the center of motion is at the water's edge, which I found by experiments that I made with models of ships, about three feet long, in a trough of water.

Experiments on models of ships to find out their center of motion.

I FIRST tried a model that was made exact from a draft well designed for a fast sailing ship, with a rounding bottom, as has been recommended, it was quite light, and had only a mainmast in, to heel her by, she swam upright, and drew three inches water aft, and two forward, I then stuck pins in, at the water's edge, in the middle of the stem and sternpost, then heel'd her gunnels in, by the mainmast head, which caused the pins in the stem and sternpost to rise out of the water, and form a sweep upwards, that made it evident, the center of motion was higher up: then I tried where her center of gravity was, by suspending her in air, between two pointed irons, in the middle of the stem and sternpost, and found it about an inch and a half above the pins, at the water's edge, and found the points of suspension on each side, about the same height above water a midships; I stuck pins in these four points, pointing to the center of gravity in the hold, I found by repeated trials, that these upper pins or points, were the axis or the center of motion that she turn'd upon; when making her heel and roll, those upper pins in the stem and sternpost had little or no motion, whilst those pins at the water's edge, rose out of the water as she moved from side to side; and when she was made to pitch and soond, by pressing her down fore and aft, those pins on each side amidships, seemed to have little or no motion, whilst I confin'd them as steady as possible to a point.

I LOADED the same model with lead, till she drew four inches and a quarter fore and aft, there stuck in pins at the water's edge, in the stem and sternpost, and found the center of gravity, two inches and a quarter below these pins, then heeling her in the water, gunnel in, each way as before, found the pins in the stem and sternpost, to continue at the surface of the water. I raised the lead higher up in the hold, till I found the center of gravity at the water's edge, then heeling her in the water as before, found the center of motion at the same place. I raised the lead still higher, till the center of gravity was about half an inch above the pins, at the water's edge, then the model would just hear herself from oversetting, in this trial the center of motion was at the same place with the center of gravity, about half an inch above the surface of the water.

I TRIED a model of a high full built ship, that was rigg'd, and had guns upon deck, so that she would but just support herself from oversetting, she drew five inches water forward, and six inches and a half aft, stuck pins in the middle of the stem and sternpost at the water's edge as before, and found the center of gravity fore and aft, an inch and a half above these pins at the water's edge, there put in pins, and tried by heeling her in water as above, and found these upper pins, the center of motion or axis, that she turn'd upon, which will always be the case, when the center of gravity is above the surface of the water, an instance of a ship launched, agreed with and confirmed the above experiments.

A MERCHANT ship built with a high and ornamented top,
The center of motion shown by the launching of a ship.

upon a narrow thin bottom, having her lower masts in, and rigged when she was launched, and as is common at such times, had a great many people upon deck, all these raised the center of gravity so high, and the center of cavity immersed lay so low in her sharp bottom, when she came into the water, that it would not support her upright, but she sallied and laid down on one side, with the black strake above the bends amidships in the water, this frightened the people upon deck, and all getting upon the upper side, she then sallied or rolled over as low the other way, and the people as before shifted themselves to the contrary side, which made her keep constantly thus sallying, whilst they towed her with boats about half a mile, and got her to a side, where the people gladly got out of her.

SHE was launched without her rudder, and I had the opportunity of being near her, and observed a boat under her stern that was held by a man with the boats stem close to a rudder-band, about three feet above the water's edge, which rudder-band I perceived to have little or no motion, but was the axis of the center of gravity, and motion, that she turned upon, while she was thus sallying or rolling, with her upper works in the water, which I reckoned was as high above water, as the keel was under water amidships, when the ship was upright.

CAUSES are best discovered by their effect, from experience and observation we must find out true principles. This ship's sharp bottom in the water, when she was upright, made too small a base, and the center of cavity lay too low, to support her upright, with the center of gravity lying so high above water, that it made her sally or lie down on one side, till that brought a broader base into the water, and the center of cavity (then immersed) higher up, and farther over, and without the center of gravity, so that the center of cavity then became as a prop, to support the ship from going lower, as she sallied each way, and in this case, the center of cavity was the center of motion, that she turned upon, when her side was laid down; for all the weight and power that was without the center of cavity acted as a lever, the same as when ships are hove down keel out, that lifted the center of gravity a little, as she sallied, which soon preponderated again,
The center of gravity and motion are at the same place in great seas, and a ships behaviour depends upon that place.

and the people always moving over to the upper side, accounts for this ship's sallying.

THIS ship's behaviour, and the above experiments, in my opinion, make it evident, that the center of motion of a ship, is at the center of gravity, and according to the built of the ship, and her center of gravity, being higher up or lower down, the different properties or behaviour of ships, may be accounted for; from the construction of the above ship, when loaded with refined salt, that just fil'd her, the center of gravity being then a great height, the report of her performance at sea was that she answered very well, and was remarkably easy in her rolling motion, in great seas, tho' the spectators at her launching, expressed themselves, that they would be loath to go in her to sea, on account of her rolling.

ITS a known property of all heavy bodies,
Heavy bodies turn in swift motion upon their center of gravity and bring their heaviest end foremost.

forced into quick motion through air, or water, that they turn upon their center of gravity as their center of motion. I have seen a bomb shell turn round in the air, by the center of gravity being near the middle: and where the center of gravity lies near one end, that heaviest end will go foremost in all directions, upwards as well as downwards, as may be seen in •kyrockets, and arrows shot from bows; an arrow shot with the light end upwards, immediately turns upon its center of gravity for its center of motion. The same causes produce the same effects upon ships, when by high mountainous waves they are tossed up and down, with a violent quick motion.

IT must be allowed that there is a point in a ship which may be called the center of motion, and which she turns upon, consequently it has less motion than any other part of the ship, when rolling, pitching, scending, or in any other motion, a ship is subject to, in great seas, when its place is then at the center of gravity, which lying higher, or lower, according to the built of the ship, contributes to make her comparitively easy, or uneasy, in high waves.

SUPPOSE a well proportioned ship for carrying cargoes in general,
Reasons why a well proportioned ship may be easy or uneasy.

could be when loaded, so that the center of gravity and motion were even with the surface of the water, this would make her remarkably easy in her rolling in great seas. And again, to suppose the same ship without dunnage, to be loaded with lead, which is eleven times heavier than its bulk of water; in a smooth sea, this might seem a benefit by making her extraordinary stiff upon a wind, and what little she was made to heel to her sail, would turn upon the center of motion at the waters edge, but if she should meet with great seas, so that she must rise and fall, in proportion to the height and quickness of the waves, that would give liberty for the center of motion to act with its natural tendency, to the center of gravity, which by this slowage would be laid so low, that the ship would roll away her masts, and be in danger of foundering, by working her hull to pieces.

FOR a further confirmation of the above opinion,
The properties of a collier cat loaden with timber.

I examined into the properties of a collier cat, of about five hundred tons burden, that carried her loading of Riga timber, without any ballast in the hold, and had about a ninth part of her cargo upon deck and on the quarters, and was sufficiently stiff, and remarkably easy in her rolling, in great seas, comparative to what she was, when loaden with Newcastle coal, though she carried herself full of them, yet she was then remarkably laboursome in her rolling. And this difference may be accounted for, from the above principles, for when this ship was loaded with Riga timber, which is lighter than its bulk of water, it was computed, that about a third part of her cargo lay above the water's edge, at her loaded mark, which would bring the center of gravity and motion as high as the surface of the water, when she drew about sixteen feet amidships; from thence to the upper part of the rigging at the maintopgallantmast head, measured one hundred and eight feet, which is somewhat less than seven eight parts of the whole, above water; and above the center of motion; and is more than an eighth part under water, and below the center of motion, and what made her sufficiently stiff, was, her extraordinary breadth, and the tight free board, or upper works, above the loaded mark, that supported the center of gravity so high, and that occasioned her to be so remarkable easy in her rolling, as the water and waves acted at the least distance, and with the least power possible, above the center of motion, on that small part of her hull above her load mark, to move, and give any degree of violent rolling motion, to so large a part of her body, that was under water, and below the center of gravity and motion; for what her keel was made to move side ways, her topgallantmast head had a little less than seven times more to move in the same time,
The difference of being loaded with timber and coal.

therefore her rolling motion must be much less, and easier in great seas, than it would be, if she was loaded with coal, which is heavier than its bulk of water, and would make the center of gravity and motion lie so much lower down in the hold, suppose four feet below her load mark when she drew sixteen feet water; in this case, the water is perpetually acting with an additional power, on that four feet of the cavity of the ships hull, that is immersed above the center of gravity, to support the ship, and make her so much stiffer, to carry more sail upon a wind with an upright side, in smooth water, as before mentioned; and the same cause will make her more laboursome in great seas, when she comes to be lifted up, with a swift motion, from the bottom to the top of a high steep mountainous wave, that may break in upon deck at the same time, as represented, plate the 6th on ships lying too. The ascending side of the waves in this case acts, with an additional power, to turn the ship bodily more on her lee-side, in proportion, as the center of gravity and motion lie lower, than when she was loaded with timber, and at the same time like other heavy bodies in motion upwards, she has a greater tendency to turn her bottom more up, as the center of gravity lies lower, as mentioned page the 33d, and in proportion, as these combin'd causes have turn'd the ships weather side up, at the top of the wave, which then leaves the weather side, with more of the bottom lower down, without water to support it, which must naturally fall on the descending side of the wave, which now acts on the lee side of the ship, to turn and plunge the weather side into the hollow of the next wave, which will act as before, to give the ship more violent rolling motions, according to her breadth, and the height the waves have to act upon the ship's hull, above the center of gravity, and motion, which now lies a little less than a tenth part, from the keel to the top gallantmast head, so that for every foot her keel is made to move by the above powers, side ways, the mast head has nine feet to move, in the same time, instead of seven, with a slower motion, which was the case when she was loaded with timber, which I hope will be understood to account for the difference, why she is more laboursome when loaded with coals than with timber.
The consequence of loading lead without dunnage.

And to suppose this ship was to be loaden to the same draft of water, without any dunnage in the bottom with lead, which is eleven times heavier than its bulk of water, which might bring the center of gravity and motion eight feet below the waters edge, and within eight feet of the lower part of the keel, which is little less than a fifteenth part from the keel to the topgallantmasthead, in such a trim its well known from experience, that in a storm, the above mentioned causes would act with so much more power, to give her more quick violent rolling motion, and for every foot her keel was made to move sideways, the mast head would have to move fourteen feet in the same time, which would be sure to make her roll away her masts, in the first place, and after that, become so much more laboursome, for want of them, so as to be in great danger of foundering, by working loose the hull.

I HOPE what has been said on this important subject, makes the principles understood, how ships act, and how they are acted upon, by those natural causes above mentioned, and the necessity there is to try every expedient, that may prevent the loss and damage that is done by ships being too crank, or too stiff; for I am convinced from experience and observation, that it is not the shape of the ships bottom, that makes her easy or uneasy in her rolling motion, which is a common notion, but it is the center of gravity lying higher or lower, according to the breadth and height of the vessel, the water acts with more or less power, that makes narrow built ships fittest to carry heavy cargoes, with the least expence of dunnage, and for light bulky cargoes, broad ships will answer best; as the above mentioned ship was much easier in her rolling motion, when loaded with timber, than with coals, which was a certain sign that her deck lay too low, for her breadth, to carry that cargo with ease in great seas; and by account, she was stiff enough quite light, to bear sail to go any where, and only took in ballast, to make her sail better by the wind, so that its evident, that this ship, as well as all others,
Experiments recommend¦ed, to find out ships best trim, by their different degrees of stiffness.

have their safest, easiest, and best trim; and that depends upon their different degrees of stiffness, which in my opinion might be found out, by making nice observations how much the ship is made to heel when hoisting the long-boat in and out, o• in the tackles along side, clear of the water, which is supposed to be smooth, and the ship quite upright, when the experiment is 〈◊〉 and the remarks how much the ship is made to heel, may be reade by various ways, as by water upon deck standing in p••• places, or running over from one side of the deck to the other, by making marks at the water's edge without board, by measuring the different heights of the gunnels, in the broadest part from the water's edge, by a plumb-line in the highest vacancy within board, from any fix'd thing above, and down into a vacant hatchway, or from the middle of the after part of the companion, to the cabbin deck, or bulk head of the cabin, or from the middle of the fore or after part of the mizentop upon deck, &c. and to set down the remarks in the log book, with the draft of water, and the ships behaviour at sea each time the experiment is tried, which in time, by taking pains, might become of great service, and in the above mentioned ship by this practice, would be found a very sensible difference, by her heeling more when loaden with timber, than with coal, as above mentioned; in case she was to load lead, or iron, a judgment might be formed by this experiment, how the stowage would answer, so that in this, or any other ship, where there had been sufficient experience, by this practice, the stowage might be altered as occasion might require, before she went to sea: where ships are too stiff, or too big for the long-boat to be heavy enough for this purpose, the long-boat might be filled with water, to a certain height, each time: and in ships of war, might be added to the weight of the long boat, a certain number of guns, by being run out on one side, close over to the other; and they might alter her trim as experience might require, by stowing the iron or heavy ballast, higher or lower, in the main body of the ship.

On getting a SHIP under Way.

IT is supposed that the ship is now stow'd and trim'd to the best advantage, and that every thing is ready for sea.
To sail with the stood tide, recom¦mended.

If it's in a tide way it should be a rule, when the wind serves, to get under way and sail against the flood, which gives time to get in the moorings, or the anchor up and stowed away at pleasure; and the ship may be steered without danger in little room through a croud of ships, should any be in the way, or through narrow or shoal channels with a flowing tide; by which means many risks may be avoided.

To prevent the difficulty that often happens in getting the anchor,
To heave ape
•

k, with the first of a windwa•d tide, recommended. when it blows fresh with a windward tide, when the tide first sets, or makes right to windward, you should heave in the cable as it slacks, till the anchor is apeek, before the ship swings end on the tide, to bring the wind aft, that may keep the ship ahead of the anchor, with the cable so tight under the bows and bottom, that it cannot be hove in, without breaking the ships sheer, by putting the helm hard over, first one way then the other; this slacks the cable, so that it may be hove in briskly for the time the ship sheers broad side to the tide, from one side of the anchor to the other, but the ship is liable to get so much head way in the time of sheering, that makes her bring up with so powerful and sudden a •erk, that I have had the experience: of breaking the cable by this practice in the Downs, which obliged us to stay there with a fair •nd, to get our anchor again.

On getting under WAY with a LEE TIDE.

IF you are under a necessity of getting under way with the wind and tide in the same direction,
To consult the officers on necessity occasions,
〈◊〉

m•••d, and ships or •oals lie near right a-stern, dangerously, in the way you are to go; in such a situation or any other that happens to be dangerous, I would recommend, where time will admit of it, to ••d every capable officer to look about with attention, where the danger lies, to consider and consult what is best to be done, and what can be expected for the ship to do, on the occasion, and especially if there be but little wind, suppose it to blow at the rate of six miles an hour, which at an anchor, will seem a commanding breeze; but it should be considered, that if the tide runs at three miles an hour, when the ship is under way she will lose onehalf of the winds power, that may hinder her from performing what may be expected from the most dexterous management.
The method of proceeding to be made known.

And after the opinions are heard, the intended method of proceeding, should be made known, that none through ignorance may hinder, but that all may know how to help to put the design in practice, whether the ship is to be shot a-head, or backed a-stern of the danger; this might contribute greatly to prevent loss or damage that is often done by weighing the anchor, and proceeding without thought of the difficulties that often attend getting a ship safely under way, in narrow or crowded places, and making a stern board is frequently necessary, and the best management depends so much on the right ordering of the helm, the effects of which, on these occasions, I shall endeavour to explain.

On the HELM.

WHAT we call the helm is the tiller, that turns the rudder on either side, of the after part of the keel and stern-post, for the water to act upon, as the management of the ship may require; and as ships differ in breadth abaft, so should the tiller in its length; that is, the tiller should be just long enough to reach close over to each side, when the rudder stands at an angle of 33 degrees or bears three points of the compass from the direction of the keel, which is generally allowed to answer best; for to make the rudder go more over, is found from experience to increase the resistance of the ship's way, which lessens the power of the rudder, to steer and manage the ship, in proportion as she loses her way through the water.
Fault of the helm going too much over.

Yet in boats and larger vessels, where the rudder and tiller admit of it, I have seen people so stupid, as to put the helm in tacking almost right athwart the stern, which tends more to stop the vessels way, than to bring her head round against the wind and waves, from one tack to the other. This shews how necessary it is as far as possible, to have things fixed by the best rules, to prevent such bad practice.

To confirm that the angle of 33 degrees is sufficient, with a bevil I tried the rudders of many ships, some built sharp for sailing, others full for carrying, Dutch as well as English, and found some,
Fault of the helm not going enough over.

tho' very few of their rudders, that stood at so large an angle as 33 degrees, but most at about 30 degrees, and several at but about 28 degrees or two points and a half, which is certainly a fault, to loose any of the rudders outmost power, because it is often wanted on the most important occasions, when safety may depend upon it.

MOVING the helm can have no effect to manage a ship but when she passes through the water, or the water passes by her, in a tide or currents way, then the water gives equal power to the helm, as if the ship went at that rate through the water.

WHEN the helm is a midships, the rudder can have no effect to turn the ship either way, as it then stands in the same direction with the keel and sternpost; but suppose the helm put to starboard,
The effect of the water upon the rudder.

it turns the rudder towards the larboard side of the ship, which makes the larboard side of the rudder to resist the water, which acts with a power according to its velocity, or the ship's head way thro' the water, against the larboard side of the rudder, to turn the ship's stern to starboard, and consequently her head to port, and the center of this turning motion; is allow'd to be at the ships center of gravity, as mentioned page the 14th. It may easily be perceived that when the helm is put hard a port, how it acts, from the same causes to turn the ships head to starboard, as may be seen by looking at plate the 7th, where the plane of a ship, in three different situations is represented with the helm hard a-port, which makes it evident that when the ship has headway, the water must act against the starboard side of the rudder, in a direction so as to turn the ships stern to port, or towards that side the helm or tiller is put upon, and her head to starboard from that side that the helm lies, as abovementioned.

On the HELM when a Ship has Sternway.

THIS deserves particular notice, because the most masterly management depends upon it, on very important occasions, as will appear hereafter.

WHEN a ship gets sternway through the water, the helm has just the contrary effect upon the ship, to what it has when she has headway; as may be perceived by the abovementioned figures, plate the 7th, with the helm hard a port, when the ship gets sternway, the larboard side of the rudder,
The effect of the rudder when sternway.

in that direction, is the first part of the ship that the water acts against, and it causes such a resisttance, as to have a powerful and ready effect to turn the ships stern to starboard from that side the tiller lies, and her head to port, that is always towards that side the tiller is put upon, whether to starboard or port, which should be strictly attended to on all occasions, when a ship is about getting or has got sternway through the water.

SUPPOSE a ship at a single anchor, situated as mentioned page the 38th, the wind and tide being both in the same direction, and ships or shoals lying near right a stern, in the way you must go, and that to keep clear of them, it requires to cast the ship upon the larboard tack, and make a sternboard; in all these proceedings I speak of a three mast ship, and the main braces leading aft.

To cast a Ship upon the Larboard Tack, and back her astern of Danger, as above mentioned.

IN trading ships, it requires all hands to heave up the anchor, therefore, all the necessary sails should be made, as ready as possible, the three topsails hoisted, and the yard braced sharp up, with the larboard braces, and the mizen haul'd out, before weighing.

IN this situation, you have only to attend the helm, and put it aport, when the anchor weighs; the tide running aft, acts against starboard side of the rudder, and in that direction, will cast the ship the right way; and bring the wind upon the larboard bow, which may be kept so, at pleasure, by the helm, till the ship begins to get sternway through the water, which should be strictly noticed, to put the helm hard aport, or a weather; which puts the plane of the s•p in a position, as represented plate the 7th, figure the 3d, and suppose, the wind on the larboard bow, with the topsails aback, which will soon give the ship sternway, through the water, which will act against the larboard side of the rudder in that direction, and will have great power to prevent the ship from falling too fast off, from the wind, and by the anchor under the bow, while it is heaving up, and the foretopsail kept shivering she will drive, as the ship is represented plate the 3d, figure the 2d, by which means it may be supposed that she has drove past, and kept clear of the danger, or of the ship, figure the 4th, and has got the anchor up and room to ware, and get before the wind, as is represented figure the 1st, in the same plate.

THUS making astern board,
The
〈…〉

•ng a sternboard. gives an advantage in getting under way, as above, from a single anchor; as the anchor heaven up easier when the ship goes astern, and at the same time it is heaving up, it helps to keep the ship's head to the wind, which will continue the stern way the longer; but notwithstanding, all these helps, its well known from experience, that a ship cannot be steered long, stern foremost, under sail, so as to keep the wind before the beam, but she will keep falling off, so long as the sternway continues, until she brings the wind abaft the beam, and then the stern-way, the power of the weather helm, and her falling off will all cease at the same time; and the ship will drive broad side through the water for a little time; as is represented, figure the 2d, plate the 3d, till she gets head-way; which is a proper time to ware, as above mentioned, if the anchor is close up. But where there is little room to ware, I would advise not to attempt it (if it can be avoided) till the anchor is hove quite up, for many ships have been run on shore, in attempting to ware, by stress of head sail, whilst the anchor is heaving up.

BUT let us suppose that from the above situation, instead of backing astern to clear a danger, it requires the ship to be shot ahead, and that there is but just room enough, close by the wind, to clear a danger that lies in the way to leeward.

To cast a Ship upon the Larboard Tack, and Shoot her by the Wind ahead of Danger.

SUPPOSE the ship, figure the 2d, plate 5th, could not be got under way with safety, without shooting ahead of the ship, figure the 1st.

TO proceed with safety from such a situation, much depends on the anchor being hove briskly up, after it is out of the ground, and having proper sails ready to set to the best advantage, the three topsails must be hoisted and the yards sharp braced up, with the larboard braces forward, and the starboard braces aft, when the anchor is at a long peek, so that at weighing the anchor, you may have only the helm to attend, putting it hard a-port, the tide will act upon the rudder, and the foretopsail being braced sharp up with the larboard braces, will readily cast or box the ship off, the right way, so as to fill the after sails, when the foretopsail may soon be braced about, and fill'd, before she gets sternway, and the helm may keep the ship under command, to steer her by the wind ahead, clear of the danger. But if the ship gets sternway in casting, the helm should be kept hard a weather, to prevent her from falling too much off,
In case of getting sternway.

from the wind, and when she gets headway again, you should be very cautious how you ease the weather helm, with the anchor much below the bows, which increases the resistance forward, and may bring the ship up in the wind, so as to prevent her shooting clear of the danger, which should be guarded against by the weather helm, and head sails, as gibb and foretopmast stay sail &c. As soon as the ship is shot far enough ahead to clear the danger to leward, and there is but little room ahead, its certainly best to bring the ship too, and drive with the helm al•e, with the main and mizen topsails aback, and the foretopsail shivering, as represented in plate the 3d, figure the second, till the anchor is up, then take proper time to ware, as before recommended.

SUPPOSE a ship riding in smooth water, in the stream of a tide, with the wind two points on the starboard how, and so near the shore on the larboard side, that she must be cast upon the larboard rack to clear the shore.

To cast a Ship on the Larboard Tack, when riding in a Tide, with the Wind two Points on the Starboard Bow.

THIS I have done from the above situation, by the common method of proceeding, as mentioned in the last case, having the three topsails hoisted, and the yards sharp braced up, with the starboard braces, aft, and the larboard braces forward, with the starboard for •opbowling well hauld, and at the anchors weighing, putting the helm hard a port; the tide acting upon the rudder, and the wind upon the falls braced in that direction, brought the ship about, with the wind on the larboard bow, before she got sternway, which should be always strictly noticed, for in all proceedings of this kind, if a ship gets sternway, before she brings the wind right ahead, you may be shu•e that she will not come about the right way; in that case it must be the surest way, directly to veer away cable,
To
〈◊〉

by 〈◊〉 anchor. and bring the ship up again, and carry out a small anchor, on the larboard bow, taking in the rope, and hauling it tight, on the larboard quarter; when the bower anchor is apeek: or you must lay till the windward tide makes, to bring the wind on the larboard bow, when you may get under way, and clear the shore.

To cast a Ship upon the Larboard Tack, when riding with the Wind right a-head, and to ware her short round, before the wind, in little Room.

IN this case, the head sails only should be loose,
Casting with a lee tide.

viz. the foretopsail hoisted, the foresail in the brails, braced sharp up with the larboard braces, the jib and foretopmaststaysail set with the larboard sheets flat aft, when the anchor is apeek, and if there is a lee tide running, at weighing the anchor, the helm should be put aport, so •ar as to bring the wind a little on the larboard bow, which should be kept so, by steering the ship till the tide ceases to run aft, which should be strictly noticed by the water along side, then put the helm hard astarboard, or alee, and when the ship gets sternway, the water will act very powerfully on the starboard or lee side of the rudder, in that direction to turn the ship's stern to windward, whilst the wind acting at the same time upon the head sails, aback, will box her round off, upon her heel, so as to bring the wind almost aft, by the time she looses her sternway; then the ship will cease falling off, and soon get headway; which should be attended to, and the head sails be braced about flat, with the starboard braces, and the helm shifted hard aport at the same time.

WHEN there is no tide, but the water still at weighing the anchor, the helm must be hard a-starboard, and as the ship gets sternway,
Casting in still w
•

¦ter. the water meets with so much resistance against the starboard side of the rudder in that direction, that the rudder acts with great power to turn the ships stern round to port, and the head sails being set and trim'd as above mentioned, and the foresails let fall with the starboard bowline hauld close forward, will contribute to cast the ship the right way round, so far by the time she loses her sternway as you may then proceed as above directed, and may get the ship under command of the helm to steer at pleasure, as she gets headway. The success of this case depends greatly on heaving up the anchor briskly. From the above it will be easy to know how to cast and get a ship under way upon the starboard tack, the same rules hold good, only to manage the helm and sails the contrary way to that which has been described.

On Turning to WINDWARD.

IT may not be amiss here, to endeavour to explain by what means, and upon what principles it is, that this most noble and useful machine a ship, is made to gain ground, and is brought about from one tack to the other, against the wind and waves, when they are moderate.

IT is well known that we have ships that will sail from six to nine miles an hour, upon a wind, when it blows fresh and the water is smooth, and will make their way good within six points of the wind, so as to gain to windward, in still water, a third of what they run by the logg; suppose six miles an hour to gain two miles, or nine miles to gain three to windward, with the sails trim'd in that oblique or slanting direction as is particularly described page the 20th, which certainly tends to force the ship much more broadside to leeward,
What makes a Ship gain to windward.

than a-head; for it is a known principle, that a ship sailing with the wind upon the beam, and the plane of the sails trim'd to four points or forty-five degrees from the direction of the keel, the sails at that angle tend equally to drive the ship broad-side to leeward as a-head; so that a ship sailing and turning to windward as above mentioned, must be owing to the shape of the ship's hull, which makes little resistance in sailing a-head, compared with the great resistance made by the broadside in the water, not only by the ship's extraordinary length in proportion to her breadth as has been observed, but all those thin parts, the dead wood, cut water, gripe, stem, keel, sternpost, and rudder, which make very little resistance in the ship's going a-head, but a powerful resistance sideways; that though the sails are trim'd in that sharp direction, yet in a moderate wind when the ship can carry all her sails, by the wind and the water smooth, she will sail with the wind two points before the beam, as fast, or faster than she will do when right before the wind, with the same breeze. Thus suppose the wind blows at the rate of ten miles an hour, when one of these fast sailing ships may sail at the rate of six miles, and gain two to windward, which increases the power of the wind one sixth part, and makes it act equal to twelve miles upon the sails close by the wind, and if you put right before the wind so that we will suppose the ship to go about five miles an hour, this reduces the power of the wind one half, and it has not one half of the canvas to act upon that it has when the ship is sailing close by the wind. To confirm this opinion,
An experiment to prove that when the wind blew 9 knots, a boat sailed 5 by the wind and large.

I have tried experiments, and found the velocity of the wind in a pleasant breeze, by a man running on the shore right before the wind, so as to keep a light vane in his hand becalm'd, when he run with a log-line fastened to him, five different times to be about nine knots: I then tried a schooner rigg'd boat with two sails close by the wind, and found that she sailed by the same log-line five knots, at five points from the wind; then I put her right before the wind, and tried her with both sails drawing full, when she went but the same five knots by the log, three different tryals, before and by the wind, at the rate of five miles an hour, when the wind blew at the rate of nine miles an hour;
To sail within 6 points of the wind is near enough for a 3 mast ship.

I reckon that a fast sailing ship would have gone as fast or faster than this boat, at six points from the wind, with her principal sails braced up to three points of the wind, as before observed, which is sharp and near enough to the wind, for a three mast ship, that has more tophamper to hold wind than a sloop, or schooner rigg'd vessel, and therefore requires to sail farther from the wind, to overcome all the resistance that is against her, and a ship makes more or less lee-way in proportion to her head-way, on which depends the power of the helm, to steer and bring her about from one tack to the other, in the most advantageous manner, so as to gain ground to windward. I have in chasing to windward been coming fast up with many a vessel that sailed much nearer the wind than we; for it should be considered that a ship sailing at six points from the wind, nothing but the sails properly trim'd contributes to give her headway, and all other parts of the ship or her materials, that the wind and waves act upon, tend (two points out of eight) to give her sternway, and the wind may be said to be reflected, so as to act upon the after part of the ship, as if it was only three points from being a-head, as may be perceived by the fly of the ensign, and the after-sails upon the mizen mast standing at an angle of only a point and a half from the direction of the keel, as mentioned page the 20th. Therefore to trim a ship's sails to steer nearer the wind than six points, must tend to lessen her headway, and in proportion increase the leeway, so that there must be more lost than gain'd by this practice, except in a very narrow river, where it may prove sometimes necessary.

On Tacking and Turning to WINDWARD.

THIS excellent property of a ship turning to windward, and tacking or staying well, depends greatly on her dimensions, shape of her bottom, and being trimmed, and I reckon a ship is in the best trim for tacking,
On a ships
〈◊〉

trim 〈◊〉 sailing. as well as sailing, both by the wind and large, and is the most manageable on all occasions when she will almost steer herself close by the wind, under all her principal sails, carrying the helm near a-midships with a trembling motion; this a fast sailing ship will often do, when it blows fresh and the water is smooth, though two thirds of the canvas (as I have computed) stand before the mainmast, and a good deal of it over the bows, upon the bowsprit and jibb-boom, when there is none which projects over the stern; when a ship carries the helm a-lee at such times, it is a sign that she is too much by the stern, or the masts are stay'd or stand too far forward. But when a ship is not enough by the stern, or the masts rake or stand too far aft, she will gripe, and carry the helm a-weather, which is thought by many to be an advantage in turning to windward;
An experiment of a rudder fixed to the stem of a sailing boat.

this opinion I have heard refuted by a very plausible experiment, tried on this account, by fixing a rudder to the stem of a sailing boat, so that it could be pointed to windward occasionally on either tack, thinking this would make the boat carry her proper helm a-weather, and the water would act upon the lee side of the two rudders, in a direction so as to cause her to gain more ground in turning to windward; but it was sou•d from experience to increase the resistance a-head, and that it did more harm than good. I have experienced great advantage from suiting a ship with more head than after sail, to ease the weather helm, when chased by a much superior force at a small distance to leeward, carrying a pressing sail close by the wind; at such times it may be perceived how much the water is raised above its natural level before and on the lee bow, and you may see a hollow, below the level on the luff of the weather bow, by the head way, and the ship heeling to the pressure of the sail she makes a fuller water line to leeward, than to windward, consequently, a greater resistance on the lee than the weather bow which is the reason that ships in general require so much more head than after sail, and to swim so much by the stern to be in the best trim to steer, and be under command of the helm so as to make them most manageable.

SHIPS lightly ballasted, or of an extraordinary length, are very uncertain, and require extraordinary attendance and time in tacking, (as is mentioned page the 13th) when a shorter well proportioned ship in a good trim for turning to windward, may come about so fast as to make it difficult to work and manage the sails, so as to get them properly trimmed in due time.

To tack a Ship when in a dangerous Situation by a ruff Sea, or when her Trim or her Property is such as may make her Staying doubtful.

SUCH circumstances certainly deserve attention, as safety may depend upon management; every thing should be ready and clear, the people properly stationed, the sails fairly trimmed, the ship cunned and steered just full and close by the wind, and if it is a ruff sea to take the advantage of the first smoothest time, when the ship has as much head way upon her as can be expected. To haul down the jibb, if set at such times is of great service, and not to put the helm a lee all at once, but luff the ship up by degrees to shake the sails, and not till then order the helm hard a-lee with a loud voice, to let go the lee sheets forward, but not the lee braces and foretop-bowline as in common to back the head sails too soon, that stops the ship's head way, which must continue to give power to the helm till the wind is brought a-head, else you may be sure the ship will not stay. To off tacks and sheets, and haul mainsail when the wind is a point on the weather bow, this swings the yards sharp round, that the main tack may be got close down, whilst the head sails becalm the foreleach of the main and maintopsails, at the same time the wind blowing aslant on the afterleach of these sails, acts jointly with the rudder to turn the ship's stern, so as to bring her about the right way, as represented by figure 1. plate the 2d.

WHEN a ship comes about, at such times she is sure to have stern way, by the time the head sails are hauled; therefore the helm should not then be shifted a-lee, as is commonly done, but should be kept hard a-weather till her sternway ceases: the water acting upon the weather side of the rudder prevents the ship falling round off from the wind, which the helm when hard a-lee occasions while the sternway continues; and strict notice should be made by some object a-head, or by the compass, that the ship continues coming about till the wind is on the other bow, for if she stops with the wind a-head, and by the water along side her headway is perceived to be done, the helm should he directly shifted to the other side, so that by the sternway the water may act upon the rudder and bring her about the right way, and then the helm should not be kept a-lee, but immediately shifted, and kept hard a-weather till her sternway ceases; for the reason already given, the head sails may be hauled as soon as possible, for the ship will be sure to fall off the faster, and farther in proportion to her sternway, so that the weather braces should be tended to prevent the head yards flying fore and aft, as they will do if it blows fresh, and to keep the head sails shivering, that the fore tack may be got easily close down, the ship stopt the sooner from falling off, and shifting the helm a-lee when the sternway ceases, the head sails may be trimmed sharp as the ship is perceived to come too.

To Tack a quick turning Ship in a fresh Gale, and smooth Water.

A GOOD or bad haul in this case makes a material difference in gaining to windward, and in wear and tear, and in the ease of the people; I have been in a ship, that when hauling mainsail, it was always catched a-back, as is represented figure 2, plate 2d. so that we had the maintack to get down five or six feet, and the after sails to trim after the ship was tacked; and that this is often the case, may be seen from the common print of a ship tacking, where it is represented in the same manner; this is owing to the custom of always putting the helm hard a-lee whether the ship requires it so far or no and not hauling the mainsail till the wind is right a-head.

THEREFORE to make a good haul at the time, when it is known that the ship will be very quick in stays, the helm should not be put hard a-lee, as customary, but half down a-lee less or more as experience proves to be sufficient to bring her about before she looses her headway, to off tacks and sheets as soon as the sails shake, that the mainsail may be hauled, with the wind two points on the weather bow, as represented figure I. plate 2d. This management helps the ship in stays, and gives time and a favorable opportunity to get the maintack close on board, and the after sails fairly trimmed by the time they fill, so that the people may be all at liberty to haul and trim the head sails; then the helm should be shifted, or righted only, as the ship may require, by her head or sternway, to work her close, and not always hard a-lee, as customary; for if the ship has headway, it may bring her up in the wind; and if sternway, it may make her fall broad off from the wind, as before mentioned.

IT must be allowed, that the less helm a ship is tacked with, so as she don't get sternway, the farther she will shoot and gain to windward in stays, for the rudder stops the ship's way through the water more or less, in proportion as the helm is put over to either side. I have tried experiments in a cistern of water,
Experiments made on the helm more or less over with a model of a ship.

with a model of a ship, that had the helm prepared to traverse four points of the compass each way, which was marked out from the center of the rudder's motion, and pushing her right forward through the water with an equal power, first with the helm a-midships, she went much farther before she stopt than she did afterwards, with the helm altered a point at a time to four points, when she shortened her distance and made a less sweep each trial. And as to a ship coming about with little helm, it is well known that will often happen when not intended, by a small neglect of the helm.

IN narrow channels,
Tacking in very narrow channels.

where a ship has very little room to turn to windward, she may require the helm to be put down hard a-lee, all at once, and the lee braces forward, sheets and foretop bowline, all to be let go at the same time, also to brace the head sails, which may prevent the ship shooting a shore in stays. When this happens the mainsail may be hauled with the wind three points on the weather bow, when the after sails shake, and the head sails take aback, by being •raced to, which will give more time to get down the maintack, and to trim the after sails without hindering, but rather helping the ship to stay, as before observed. For suppose a ship was to be launched head foremost, wi•h her square sails set and trimmed sharp, with the larboard braces forward, and the starboard braces aft, and with the wind three points on the starboard bow, as represented figure I. plate 2d. it is evident from thence that the wind would act whilst the headway continued, so as to turn the ship's head to starboard; and on the after sails to turn the stern to port, which would bring her round on the larboard tack, though she had no rudder hung, or if she had her helm a-midships, by the effect of the sails only.

BUT the best lessons for tacking, and working to windward in little room,
On working to windward in the coal trade to London.

are in the Colliers bound to London, where many great ships are constantly employed, and where wages are paid by the voyage, so that interest makes them dexterous, and industrious to manage their ships with few men, in a complete manner, in narrow channels, more so than perhaps in any other trade by sea in the world; the seamen there go regularly from one thing to another, which they know depends upon them, by the great practice they have in turning to windward against Westerly winds, through narrow and shoal channels, with their deep loaded ships, that are trimmed so near an even keel to make them draw as little water as possible, and their mainmasts stand farther aft than common; this occasions them to gripe, which often obliges them to work spritsail and all the head sails they can bear, to make them manageable when turning to windward; in narrow channels, when it blows so strong that all hands cannot haul aft the fore sheet, but are obliged to heave it aft by the capston, even then it would be looked upon as a great blunder to make a bad haul, observing always the ship's quick or slow motion in stays, to off tacks and sheets, so as to be all ready, and haul mainsail in the proper time, whilst the wind takes the back of the weather or fore leach of the main and maintop sail, which swings them sharp round, with the main sheet block close aft, and the main tack on the other side, close forward to the chestree or the tack hole, so that they have only to haul in the slack of the main tack and sheet, and trim the after sails whilst becalmed by the head sails, so that all hands are at liberty to help to haul and trim the head sails, when the weather requires it.

IT must be allowed, as mentioned page the 19th, that these ships being adapted for this trade, are rigged as light as possible, to make them work easy to windward in narrow channels, with few hands; they have no lifts to the lower yards, no foretop bowlines; and have short main bowlines, and snatch blocks for the main and fore sheets; the main braces lead forward, so that the main and maintop bow¦lines are hauled and belayed to the same pin, the same way with the main brace, so that one man easily lets them all go together at once when the mainsail is hauled, or rather swung so sharp round, by the wind, as above mentioned, with so swift a motion that tho' they haul every thing hand over hand, can only get in the slack of the maintop bowline by its going single, which they make fast to keep the sails thus swung sharp round, till the main tack is got down, and the yards braced up, then haul the bowlines upon the main brace, for the reasons given, and the ship being trimmed near an even keel, with the mainmast standing far aft, as before remarked, makes them work close, by preventing them falling much off from the wind, though they may have lost their head way, when the head sails are hauled: And they are mostly built with pink sterns, rounding inwards in their upper works, that they trim the sails to stand full within five and a half points of the wind, and so little tophamper above water, to hold wind, in proportion to other ships, that when turning to windward in narrow channels, they beat ships that would beat them in the open sea, which must be owing to such reasons as have been given, and that the running ropes may run clear in making short trips, they don't coil them up, but they let them run as they were hauled.

Turning to Windward in very narrow Channels.

SAFETY depends greatly on getting a ship at first fairly under way, and where there is water enough, it is certainly best to heave short upon the anchor, and weigh with the first of the tide's making to windward. And if the wind is partly across the tide, it will cast the ship with her head towards the weather shore, which she may be kept clear of, by driving with the sails a-back, as represented plate the 3d. figure 2, till the anchor is up and stowed; and as the tack towards the weather shore is the shortest, it is prudent to back as near the lee side as you can with safety, to make the first board the longer, to get the proper sails fairly set, and to get all ready in time for tacking, and to make as bold as possible with the weather shore, on which side a ship is always surest in coming about, and in case of missing stays, a ship may be backed off from the weather shore as above mentioned, till she has room to fill and set the sails, and get all her head way to try her in stays again, without any danger. But when the ship is got about to stand towards the lee shore, where she is not so sure in stays; when going slanting with the tide as going across it, and especially if there runs any waves that may hinder the ship staying, and not being sure of all the ropes running clear upon this tack for the first time, therefore it may be necessary to put the ship in stays in good time, that in case of a miss, there may be room enough to fill and try her the second time, or to use such means as may prevent her going on shore.

BUT when the wind is right against the tide, that begins to make to windward, it requires caution, not to weigh the anchor till the ship swings end on to the tide, and brings the wind so far aft, that she may be steered right against the tide, till the anchor is up and stowed, and the sails with which the ship is to work are all ready; as represented figure I. plate the 3d. and to haul the wind from being close over to one side, which gives the whole breadth of the channel, to get the ship fairly under way, close by the wind, and ready for tacking, let the first trip be made as short as possible, till it is found how the ship and people work upon both tacks, and make them longer or shorter accordingly afterwards; but care should be taken not to stand into an eddy tide on either side, which may be perceived by a rippling, which has often occasioned ships to miss stays and go on shore.

THERE is a saying amongst seamen, if a ship will not stay, you must ware her; and if she will not ware, you must box haul her; and if you cannot box haul her, you must club haul her; that is, let go the anchor, to get her about on the other tack; each of these masterly performances deserve perticular notice.

On Box Hauling a SHIP.

MANY advantages as well as safety, often depend upon this being put properly in practice; for it often happens, that a ship refuses stays, when there is not room to ware in time, so as to avoid danger, by the common method of filling the head, and shivering the after sails, &c. Therefore whenever a ship in a dangerous situation is put in stays, and it is perceived that she stops coming to, before she brings the wind a-head, it is then certain, that she will not stay, therefore she should be immediately box hauled, by keeping the helm hard a-lee, and haul off all; bracing about the head as well as the after sails, hauling close forward the lee fore and foretop bowlines, and up mizen and down after staysails at the same time; the wind will then act upon the sails thus aback, and the water upon the lee side of the rudder, by her stern way, will box the ship short round, upon her keel, with her stern up to the wind, far enough aft for the after sails to draw full the right way to act with the helm, which must be shifted hard a-weather when the stern way ceases; so that the head way with the wind so far aft, will readily bring the ship round on the other tack. The main and fore tacks are easily got down when the wind is upon the quarter, and shivers the sails, the main sheet easily haul'd aft, and the after sails braced up and trimmed sharp, as the ship brings the wind more aft, which help her round the faster, till the wind comes on the other quarter, that the mizen and mizen staysail may be set to take the right way, to bring her to the wind, whilst you tend and trim the head sails, as she comes to.

BOX-HAULING may be proved to be the surest and readiest method to get a ship under command of the helm and sails, to answer many occasions in little room, as well as to ware, and bring her from one tack to the other, with the least loss of ground to leward, when a ship refuses stays.
Why a ship loses little ground in box-hauling.

Nice managers of sloop rigged vessels, turning to windward in narrow channels, when they want but little to weather a point, rather than make another tack, have a practice of running up in the wind till the headway ceases, then they fill again upon the same tack, this they call making a half board: thus a ship in Box-hauling may be said to make two half boards, first running with her head, then with the stern up in the wind, by which two motions, a ship if well managed, rather gains to windward, and brings the wind almost aft, by the time the stern way ceases, so that she is under the command of the weather helm, and the after sails, to bring her short round, on the other tack, with the first of the headway, in which time only it is that the ship goes any thing to leward, worth notice, in Box-hauling; therefore it should always be put in practice on these occasions, by putting the ship in stays, though it is known she will not come about with her head to windward, and in a gail of wind and high waves, or when there is not people enough to manage and haul the head sails, the after sails only may be hauled, and the fore sheet hauled close aft again, when its perceived that the ship has done coming to, as is represented plate the 7th, of a ship imbayed on a lee shore, which shall be spoke of in its place.

On Club Hauling a SHIP.

THIS is to get a ship from one tack to the other, by letting go an anchor, when by an eddy tide, or by a ruff sea, or being out of trim, or from any other cause, she refuses to stay or ware, in time to avoid danger. When this happens in shoal water, found by the lead, that if the ship has not water over her anchor, she should have sternway given her, and not headway when the anchor is let go, and the weather anchor is likelier to go clear of the ship than the lee one, therefore both bower anchors should be ready on these occasions.

TURNING to windward at sea will be noticed hereafter, on making of passages.

On a Ship driving to Windward with the Tide.

IT often happens that there is not room to turn a vessel to windward through a crowd of ships, or in narrow channels, but she must drive by the help of the windward tide.

A SHIP in this situation, must be managed according to the manner you design to proceed, for if the tide is strong enough, in proportion to the wind, so that she will drive fast enough to windward, stern foremost, it will certainly be the best, as it may be done with or without any sails set, the yards being braced sharp up, as represented plate the 3d. figure 1. A ship may be steered at pleasure, and to a great nicety, end on to the tide, and she will drive stern foremost in less room than her own length; but it will require above three times her length to drive broadside, if the wind is right against the tide; and dexterous management is required on such an occasion, because a ship will always shoot and tend towards that shore a-head of her, so that you cannot drive far upon one tack, though with the sails a-back, without waring at times, to drive on the other tack, or the ship will soon shoot on that shore a-head of her, which I have seen instances of in spite of all endeavours to back a-stern.

REASONS, why ships shoot a-head, more than they can be backed a-stern, when driving broadside with the tide, though the sails are a-back.

SHIPS in general have a longer and sharper run-aft than they have an entrance forward, the sternpost and rudder stand more upright, than the stem and gripe, and they swim more or less by the stern; therefore the after part of a ship must be more powerfully acted upon by the windward tide, than her fore part in the water, which consequently sets her stern more to windward than her head, which at the same time is more acted upon by the wind above water than her stern, in proportion as the foremast, and all belonging to it, is larger and stands further forward than the mizen mast stands aft, and the bowsprit, with the jibboom, and all that belong to them projecting so far over the bows, and nothing projecting over the stern to hold wind, in the same proportion abaft; they must naturally cause the ship to drive with the wind mostly a-baft the beam.

AND though the most effectual means are supposed to be used on such occasions, to keep the ship's bow to the wind, and prevent as much as possible her falling off and shooting a-head, by letting her drive with the after sails braced flat a-back, the mizen hauled out, the helm a-lee, and the head sails kept shivering, as is represented by figure 2, plate the 3d. where it appears as if a ship might be backed a-stern at pleasure, yet experience proves the contrary, and the following reasons may be added to those above mentioned: The helm must be kept a-lee when driving in this way, and though the after sails are a-back, the ship will shoot a-head, and back a-stern alternately, but she will come to with a slow motion by her headway, till she brings the wind before the beam, which gives her sternway and makes her fall round off upon her heel, with a quick motion, and brings the wind so far abaft the beam, that she soon gets headway again, so that she will shoot much farther a-head than she backs a-stern, which makes it difficult to drive broadside with the tide, right against the wind, in little room, with safety.

BUT I have heard of this difficulty being overcome, by two vessels driving broadside with their sterns confined near together by a rope, that each vessel could check and command the other, at pleasure, to keep in a fair way, which I think is practable to the advantage of both vessels, as they may drive without any sails, only hoisting a staysail occasionally.

To drive a Ship Broadfide to Windward, with the Tide right against the Wind.

IT is a masterly and necessary piece of seamanship, to be able to perform this with safety, where there is very little room, as is represented plate the 3d. where the ship figure 1. by the help of a strong tide, may be supposed to have drove stern foremost, right to windward, where it was too narrow to drive broadside, and is got where there is but just room and tide enough to drive broadside, which may make a great deal of difference in the ship's driving according to the wind and tide; for if we suppose the wind blows so fresh that the ship cannot be made to go less than at the rate of two miles an hour, through the water, when driving stern foremost, the tide must run at the rate of three miles, to make her drive one mile an hour to windward, but where the tide runs but two miles an hour, the ship will then be at a stand between wind and tide, but when she is brought to, and drives broadside, as represented by figure 2. she may not drive above half a mile through the water; so that what is the difference between that and what the tide goes, she will drive to windward.

A SHIP may drive stern foremost without any sail, as she only, requires steerage way to command her, and the less way she has through the water, the faster she will drive, so that when it blows fresh, to contrive and make stop waters may be of service to help her to windward. But to bring a ship to, where there is little room, so as to drive broadside, will require the three topsails, the mizen, and the jib and foretopmast staysail, to be ready to hoist, to make her manageable to back, or fill, stay, or ware, as may be required; for to endeavour to bring a ship to without sail to throw a-back occasionally, she would perhaps shoot on that shore a-head before she loses her headway.

NOW let us suppose that the ship figure 1. plate the 3d. after driving stern foremost as above mentioned, has set her topsails braced sharp up with the larboard braces, in order to bring to, and drive broadside on the larboard tack. In this case the ship should be sheered as near the starboard shore as she possibly can with safety, then put the helm hard a-starboard, hauling out the mizen as soon as it will take the right way, so as to bring the ship round to, with the topsails a-back, to prevent her shooting too near the larboard shore.

A SHIP bringing to with much headway, will bring the wind nearly right a-head, by the time the headway ceases; then the helm should be shifted hard a-weather, and the sails being a-back, will soon give her great sternway, by which means a sternboard may be made to back her as near the shore a-stern as possible; for, as it has been observed, a ship driving broadside may easily be shot a-head, when she cannot be backed a-stern, and this is the only time a sternboard can be made to advantage at the ship's bringing to; for when the sternway ceases, the helm must be put and kept hard a-lee, and the ship must drive with the main and mizen topsails a-back, the mizen hauled out, and the foretopsail kept shivering, as is represented figure 2. plate the 3d. and if the mizen staysail was set with the sheet to windward, it might help to keep her more to the wind, so that she might drive the farther on one tack, before you are obliged to ware her to drive on the other tack, which must be done as soon as the ship is perceived to draw near the shore a-head, which will always be the case with a ship driving right to windward, for the reasons given.

WHEN you intend to ware as a ship is always coming to, and falling off, by her head and sternway when thus driving, take the opportunity, when she has just done falling off by her sternway, as she is then as far a-stern as she will be upon that tack, and the wind as far aft, being then all ready, up mizen, down mizen staysail, (if set) shiver the main and mizen topsails, fill flat the foretopsail, up jib and foretopmast staysail, (if necessary) shift the helm hard a-weather, the tide then setting round the stern, as is represented by the ship's wake and boat to windward figure 2, it will act with such power upon the rudder in that direction, that with the first of her headway, the ship may be wared, and proceeding as before, brought to, so as to drive on the other rack; in this manner a ship may be managed, to change tacks, and drive right to windward with the Tide, in less room than any one would think possible that has not had the experience.

BUT instead of waring as last mentioned, I cannot help thinking it would be better to put the ship in stays, filling the after sails flat, keeping the foretopsail just drawing full, till the ship comes to, so that it will take a-back to help her about, and if she stays, let the helm lie, as it will then be, a-weather; the ship may then be backed, by making a sternboard towards the shore a-stern, at pleasure; and if she refuses stays, it gives a favourable opportunity to brace the topsails a-back, and box-haul her round, as has been described page 53, by which she will lose less ground than by wareing, and the ship's trim may require this practice, as it is known that loaded colliers will stay when they will not ware, and when light in ballast, they will ware when they will not stay.

THE above management is founded on a supposition that a ship is to drive through a long straight reach, or channel, where the tide runs true right against the wind.

To drive Broadside to Windward, with the Tide running across the Channel, or in a River of a winding or serpentine Form.

IN channels where the tide runs across through swashes, &c. the ship should be laid to drive with her head towards that shore the tide sets from, and the setting of cross tides is best perceived by some objects which may be found to lie nearly in the direction of the channel; observe nicely how your ship opens or shuts these marks, that the sails may be kept a-back, shivering, or full to shoot a-head, as the tide may require, so as to keep the ship in a fair way.

DRIVING in a crooked or serpentine river, as represented plate the 3d. the tide commonly runs winding like the river, from a point over into a bay on the other side, and out of a bay again past the next point, into the next opposite bay, &c. therefore at the bottom of each bay, where the tide begins to set out again, the ship should be put on the other tack, to drive with her head towards the next point, as represented by the ship figure 2, by which means a ship may be backed a-stern, to drive clear of the shore a-head, upon both tacks.

WHEN the wind blows a point or two of the compass, across a tide that runs true, a ship driving with her head towards the weather side may be easily managed, so as to keep in a fair way, by backing, filling, or shivering the sails, and the more the sails can be kept shivering, the faster the ship will drive.

THOUGH a windward tide helps a ship to work, and makes her manageable when driving to windward, yet it is very necessary to have an anchor ready to let go, as occasion may require.

On bringing a Ship to an Anchor.

VARIOUS situations and different sorts of harbours, roads, and coasts, different directions and strength of winds, waves, and tides, make it impossible to fix certain rules to bring a ship properly to an anchor, at all times and places. Yet in my opinion, a great deal may be said on this subject, that deserves notice. And first it may be necessary to make some remarks on coiling cables.

On Coiling CABLES.

IT may be the loss of a ship, to coil a new cable with the sun, as it is termed, before it is properly stretched, or the end taken through the coil, for it is almost sure to come up in kinks when yeered out, and especially in cold weather. The greatest dependence being on new cables, they are commonly kept in reserve till the other cables, or the anchors, give way, which makes this bad practice in coiling them the more dangerous; therefore it should be first considered, how to manage the cables, to make them work and coil to the best advantage, and run clear of catch sakes as well as kinks.

A CABLE, in my opinion, works and wears much better for being •iled the same way that it runs round the windlass, or bitts. Therefore the cables for the starboard anchors, which work round the windlass against the sun, should be coiled against the sun, and those for the larboard anchors coiled with the sun, as they work that way round a windlass, and as they run out round the bitts the contrary way, so that the cables should be coiled accordingly. And to make new cables answer this practice, is, the first time, to coil them with the sun, over the cable tier hatchway, with larger o• less sakes, according to the limberness or stiffness of the •ope, and take the upper end through the coil, to coil it down in the tier; this will make the rope pliable to coil, and veer out easy, clear of kinks, either with or against the sun.

TO coil a cable to run clear of catch sakes, the cable should always be laid out from the inside sake to the outside sake, at the farther end of the cable tier, farthest from the hatchway; this will likewise coil the cable so nuch lower in that part near the hatchway, so as to give more room and height to bend and coil the cable, and for the bends to upset clear when veering away.

THE bad custom of coiling cables with the sun, so as to run in kinks proceeds first from the rope-makers, who for their ease, coil them that way to send them to the ship, where, without thought, they are too commonly coiled down the cable tier the same way, because a new cable before it is well stretched, will always bend of itself that way in coiling, for the rope opening against the lay, gets clear of a turn at the bend of every fake, which is the reason that a new cable bends and coils so easy this way; but when this cable comes to be veered out, this turn must come into the cable again at the upsetting of every bend; but the lay of the rope inclines it to keep clear of this turn, which prevents the fakes from upsetting, and causes it to come up in kinks, by which bad practice I have known many narrow escapes. Therefore all new cable-laid ropes, hawsers, and towlines, as well as cables that require to run clear of kinks, should be either coiled against the sun, till they are well stretched, or with the sun, and the end taken through the coil as before mentioned; for the same reason, as it is well known, that a coil of new rigging will not run clear of kinks, without the end is properly taken through the coil. But to coil a new cable against the sun, that is from the right hand to the left, requires a turn to be forced into the lay of the rope, at the bend of every sake, which makes it troublesome to coil this way; but this turn in every fake, makes the bends upset of themselves, so that the cable veers out very easy.

NOW if we may suppose that the anchors and cables are all ready, so as to be sure of running clear: The next things to be considered, are the depth of water, the room, strength of the wind, waves or tide, where you expect to anchor; also that the buoy and buoy rope, range of cable, handspikes, stoppers, ring-ropes, and buckets of water to throw on the windlass or bitts, be all ready, as occasion may require, and to give as great a scope of cable as the place will permit, before you offer to bring the ship up, because the length and weight of the cable, will contribute greatly to ease both the anchor and cable, as well as the ship, when the waves run high, for which reason, I have known ships have the inner ends of the sheet and best bower cables spliced together, so that by oversetting one cable, they could vear out both upon one end, to either anchor, if necessity required it, for it is well known, in a storm when the waves run high, and especially in deep water, that a ship will ride much easier and longer by two cables, or more, upon one end, to one good anchor, than by two anchors with a single cable to each. For to ride by two anchors, they must lie far enough asunder on each bow, to prevent one anchor from hurting the other cable, by which a ship seldom pulls hard upon both cables at the same time, but first pulls hard upon one cable; if but a short scope, it plunges her deep into the sea; then that strain draws the ship towards that anchor, which slackens that cable; so that by the next wave she strains hard upon the other cable, and so on she pulls first at one and then at the other, which causes a ship to labour, and be very uneasy in the waves, in comparison to what she would be, if riding by one good anchor and a great scope of cable, which admits the ship to fall and rise easy with the waves, without hauling the whole length and weight of the cable off the ground, which makes the anchor hold longer without coming home.

IN letting go an anchor, care should be taken that the ship does not hurt herself upon it, in case of shole water, and that the anchor is not fouled by the cable getting about the fluke or stock of the anchor, which may prevent its holding the ship when any strain comes upon it.

To come to an Anchor when the Wind is right against the Tide.

IT should be a rule to shoot the ship a-head of the anchor, or sheer her clear of it, upon the same tack you design to shoot her upon, the next tide, endeavouring always to keep the ship in swinging with the tide on one side of the anchor, to keep clear of it, for reasons that will be given in its place on keeping a clear anchor. As it is represented plate the 3d. it may be supposed that the ship driving to windward has got to an anchoring birth, or the tide is so far spent that she will drive no farther, to windward, and must come to an anchor on the starboard tack. In this case at letting go the anchor, the ship should be shot a-head of it, and kept a-head with the helm a-weather, and the yards braced full with the larboard braces, and the foretopmast-staysail and mizen set full, as is represented by figure 3, plate the 3d. till the windward tide is done, that she falls to leeward and rides windroad, with the wind, anchor, and cable right a-head, as represented figure 4, plate the 3d. in which position she will lie till the next windward tide.

To come to an Anchor when going with a strong Wind and Tide the same Way.

WHERE there is room, it is certainly necessary to full the square sails, as the ship is running before the wind and tide, and to take room to bring her to, by putting the helm hard over to starboard or port, and haul out the mizen to bring the ship's head up as much as possible, against the wind and tide, at letting go the anchor, which will contribute greatly to bring the ship up with safety and ease, compared with that bad practice of letting go the anchor as the ship runs right before the wind and tide, without handing the square sails, which adds all that extraordinary force of the ship's way through the water, to the strength of the wind and tide, which increases the strain and rubs the cable to a dangerous degree, by which I have seen great damage done, as breaking the cable, &c. which might have been avoided by bringing the ship to, and letting go the anchor as above recommended.

THE damage that is often done on this occasion, proceeds from want of consideration; for as it has been observed before, a ship sailing right before the wind, and a strong tide, does not feel the real strength of the wind; therefore apprehending no danger, lets go the anchor as the ship runs, which if it does not make something give way, must greatly strain every thing that is immediately concerned in bringing the ship up.

To come to an Anchor when the Wind is right a-cross the Tide.

WHERE it can be done, the ship should be always put upon that tack that stems against the tide, when the anchor is let go; and if it is designed to continue at a single anchor, in order to keep it clear, I would recommend to sheer and keep the ship to leeward of the anchor, by keeping the helm a-weather, and the foretopmast-staysail set with the sheet to windward, as represented by the ship figure 1, plate the 4th, for the reasons which will be given on keeping a clear anchor.

GREAT advantages may attend letting go the anchor steming against the tide, and especially where the tide runs over rapid, for it gives an opportunity to take notice at what rate the ship may be going a-stern, so as to judge whether it may not be necessary to keep sail set, in order to help to bring the ship up, and ride easy in a rapid tide. I have been where we let go the small bower anchor, with all sails set, with a fresh breeze of wind against the tide, and veered out the whole cable, and the ship still drove; then we let go the best bower anchor and veered out all that cable, by which the ship brought up; and road so close to a shole a-stern, that we were obliged to ride with the helm a-port, to keep the ship with a broad sheer, to prevent her touching the ground, which would have been fatal to the whole: the rapid tide would have overset the ship, broke away her masts, and turned her over and over upon the shole, which would probably have been the case, had it not been for the sails being kept set, which helped to bring the ship up and ride.

To come to an Anchor at Slack-tide, or in still Water, where there is neither Tide or Current.

IT is expected in this case, that the sails are taken in, as the strength of the wind, and situation may require, to bring the ship up with case; in moderate weather, and where there is room, it is certainly best to bring the ship to under the topsails, throwing her head up to the wind, by putting the helm a-lee, with the topsails lowered down or clewed up; and when the ship is perceived to get sternway, then let go the anchor to the ground, but veer out no more cable but as the ship takes it, by driving to leeward from the anchor, as represented by the ships figure 2 and 3, plate the 5th, and not offer to bring the ship up, till it is thought that she has a sufficient scope of cable to ride her, on which it depends to make the anchor and cable hold, as occasion may require.

To come to an Anchor in Roads that are often crowded with Ships, so as to take and give good and clear births.

THE best anchoring births in these places are commonly well known by marks, which the first ship naturally takes up, and has a right to keep, clear from any other ship anchoring so near as to make her a foul birth, as is represented by plate the 5th, where the ship figure 1, may be supposed to be come to an anchor, in the best birth, having the castle and windmill in one line, and the houses and church in the other line of direction, pointing exactly to the anchor; these particulars ought to be wrote down in the logg book, as should likewise the bearings by the compass, of extreme points of land, sholes, rocks, or sands, all which it may be necessary to remark, so that a course may be steered to keep clear of them, if the ship should be drove from her anchors in the night, or in thick weather, and that the anchors may be found again by the marks made when they were let go, if their buoys should disappear.

IF it is a tide, or trade wind road-steed, the next ship that comes ought not to anchor right a-head, or a-stern, of the first ship, so as to lay in each others hawse, but should come to upon the bow and quarter, at a proper distance, to prevent other ships from coming between, and in a slanting direction from the tide or wind, as is represented by the ships figures 2 and 3, plate the 5th, this in my opinion might contribute to the safety of ships in such places as the D•wns, Yarmouth Roads, or the West Indies, and other such places, that may be crowded with ships; when it happens to blow strong upon a lee tide, or in strong sea breezes in the West Indies, each single ship may then veer away what cable may be thought necessary, and keep clear of the other ship's hawse a-stern, or in case of driving or casting, this gives a better chance to keep clear of each other.

A FRIEND told me that he often got a good anchoring birth in the West India road steeds, by first running down through the middle of the fleet, where he often perceived good births left vacant, by some ships that had sailed from the middle of the fleet; then he steered out from among the ships, and turned to windward of them all, so far as to give time to take in and furl all the sails, and run down before the wind amongst the ships, without any sail, and let go the anchor at the designed birth, which he could not have come at by any other means: The like practice may answer the same purpose at other times and places.

To come to an Anchor when designed to moor with the best and small bower Anchors.

IN places exposed to waves, from one quarter more than another, and if the ship is to lie for some time, exposed to all the various winds that may blow, it should be made a rule to let go the first anchor, so that the ship may be moored with the second anchor, to lay with an open hawse towards the sea, or the most open or worst part of the road, or river, where the greatest waves can come from, to give the ship violent pitching motions, which are always very destructive to the cables when riding hard with a cross in the hawse, for which reason the cross in the cables should always be towards the smooth water quarter.

To let go all the Anchors to best Advantage, when that is the only Chance left to keep the Ship off a lee Shore.

THIS desperate occasion happens when the anchoring ground lies less than two cables length from the lee shore, or when the ship is only that distance from it, with the wind and waves so high, right upon the shore, that it is found impossible for the ship to keep off the shore, with all the sail she can carry; so that safety must depend intirely on the management of the ground tackle.

IN such a dangerous situation, where, if one anchor or cable sail, there is not room to bring the ship up by another, and it is counted a great disgrace to let a ship go on shore with any ground tackle on board, that might have been used to help to ride her; therefore the utmost endeavours should be used to let go all the anchors, a little distance from each other, and as much as possible in a line along the shore, that one anchor may not hurt another cable, and that the cables lead clear of each other, and made to bear a strain in proportion to their strength, to help to ride out the storm.

TO put this difficult performance in practice, I would recommend to get the square sails handed, with the quickest dispatch possible, but to keep the foretopmast, main, and mizen staysails set, the yards braced full, and the helm put hard a-weather, to keep headway upon the ship, shooting her along the shore as much as possible, till all the anchors are let go, contriving to begin with the weathermost anchor, or that that has the cable in the weathermost hawse-hole, and so on with the next weathermost anchor, paying out the cables as fast as possible, that the ship may keep shooting a-head till the last anchor is let go.

On keeping a clear ANCHOR.

IT is allowed to be a masterly and material branch of seamanship, to be able to manage a vessel riding in a tide way, by a single anchor, so as to keep it clear from the cable getting foul of the fluke, or stock, and sometime soul of both fluke and stock, which may be the case; and the anchor thus fouled, as it is termed, prevents its holding the ship, and may occasion her to drive on shore, or athwart another ship's hawse, which often happens from the want of proper methods being put in practice to keep the anchor clear: This therefore deserves the utmost regard, for in open roadsteeds, when only waiting for a fair wind, it may be better and safer to ride by a single anchor, than to be moored when it blows hard, and among many ships, which are liable to drive athwart each others hawse, so that to save both ships, the leewardmost may be obliged to cut or slip; if riding by a single anchor, they have only one cable to get clear of, but if moored with the two bowers, they have two cables to get clear of, which may be at a time when both ships and men may seem to be the sport of wind and waves, and which may make one ship to rise whilst the other falls, and tear in pieces even our heart of oak, and make our seamen's hearts of oak fail, which we boast ourselves so much upon; for what chance does feeble men stand, to send off the blows one ship gives to the other, at such times of distress, when nothing is heard but the crashing of timber, &c. and crying out for the leewardmost ship to cut, to relieve them, so that if moored, and must part with both anchors, she may have only one anchor left to bring her up again, and ride by, and safety may still depend on keeping that clear; all which prove the great necessity of endeavouring, after fixed rules, to keep a single anchor clear.

To keep a clear Anchor, with the Wind right against the Tide.

IT should be a fixed rule on this occasion, at the tide first setting to windward, to shoot the ship a-head of the anchor, to keep it clear, and not to offer to back her a-stern of it, for that is found by experience to be impracticable, not only for the reasons given page 55, on a ship driving broadside, and on this occasion, when the cable lying upon the ground, the ship swinging with the tide, will bring the wind so much abaft the beam, that it will be impossible to back the ship a-stern, clear of her anchor; yet I have seen this attempted in capital merchant ships, and even in his Majesty's service I have seen some expose their ignorance in this important point of duty.

IT should be another fixed rule, always to endeavour to shoot or sheer a ship on the same side of the anchor each tide, to avoid the risk of the anchor not turning in the ground, as the ship goes round it, as she will do when she is let pass at random, on one side of the anchor one tide, and on the other side of it the next, by which bad practice the cable is liable to get foul of the upper fluke of the anchor.

THIS case I must refer back to the example page 61, where the ship figure 4. plate the 3d. is described to be managed according to the above rules, when she was brought to an anchor, and was shot a-head of it upon the starboard tack; so that when the windward tide makes again, she should be cast and shot a-head of her anchor upon the same tack, as before is represented figure 3, plate the 3d. until she swings to windward of the anchor, and comes to a proper sheer, with a tight cable growing on the larboard bow, and the wind on the starboard quarter, keeping her on this sheer with the helm a-port: then the sails may be taken in, till the windward tide slacks, for there is no danger of a ship breaking her sheer, whilst the tide runs strong, in proportion to the wind that keeps her a-stern of the anchor; but when the tide slacks, or the wind becomes so strong, that the ship shoots end on upon the tide, a-head of her anchor; then is the time that she is liable to break her sheer against the helm, and requires assistance with sail, and the yards to be braced about, &c. to prevent her from falling over her anchor, and fouling it.

BUT to cast the ship figure 4, on the starboard tack, as above mentioned, when the lee tide is done, the head yards should be braced up sharp with the starboard braces, the after yards with the larboard braces, the foretopmast staysail set with the starboard sheet hauled flat aft, and the helm hard a-port; then the windward tide coming right aft, acts upon the larboard side of the rudder, in a direction such as will cant the ship's stern to starboard, and the wind at the same time acts upon the foretopmast staysail, and the head yards, to cast her head to port upon the starboard tack. And suppose that by the setting of the tide, or other accidents, that contrary to your design the ship should cast on the larboard tack, in that case, every thing is ready trimmed, as it should be, to ware her round on the other tack, the helm being a-port, is now hard a-weather, the head yards and foretopmast staysail is flat full, the after yards braced the other way, all act together, and will bring the ship round on the starboard tack, before she comes near her anchor; then the mizen may be hauled out, and the foretopmast staysail, and head yards set drawing full, to shoot her a-head, till she drives to windward of the anchor, with a tight cable, as before described.

BUT to cast a ship the right way at an anchor, with a windward tide, is best represented plate the 5th, with a side view of the ship figure 1, to cast her upon the larboard tack, when the lee tide slacks, the helm is put a-port, to sheer the ship, and bring the wind on the larboard bow, then set the spritsail and spritsail topsail, topped up to port, the jib and foretopmast staysail with the larboard sheets flat aft, and the jib sheet under the spritsail yard arm to guy the sail farther out to port, the head yards braced sharp up with the larboard braces, the after yards with the mizentopsail set braced sharp up the other way; strict notice should be taken when the lee tide is quite done, to put the helm hard a starboard, so that the windward tide acting upon the starboard side of the rudder in that direction, and the wind upon the sails and yards makes them evidently tend to cast the ship the way designed, and when she is cast you have only to fill the head sails and yards, to shoot her a-head with a tight cable, till the tide sets her to windward of the anchor, or swings her near end on to the tide, and brings the wind on the larboard quarter; then the head sail should be taken in, and the head yards pointed to the wind wi• the larboard braces, and if she continues to ride a-head of the anchor, which should be strictly noticed by the buoy, or the growing of the cable more after-sail should be set, the mizen and mizen staysail added to the mizen topsail, to help the starboard helm to keep the ship from breaking her sheer against the helm, and bringing the wind on the starboard quarter; when this happens with these sails set, the mizen and mizen staysail must be immediately taken in, shiver or keep drawing full the right way the mizentopsail, set the jib or foretopmast staysail, the yards and helm being trimmed the right way, as before mentioned, to keep clear of the anchor, and bring the ship round on her proper sheer again, with the wind on the larboard quarter; then down head-sails, and endeavour to keep her on this sheer, as before directed, till the windward tide is done.

On keeping a clear Anchor when the Wind blows a Point or two a-cross the Tide.

IN this situation, when the tide makes to windward, it will naturally cast the ship with her head towards the weather side, and for the reasons before given, will swing her, to bring the wind so far abaft the beam, as to prevent backing her a-stern of the anchor to keep it clear: therefore I would recommend to shoot her a-head of the anchor to the weather side, till she comes to her proper sheer; the wind being on the quarter a little a-cross the tide, will keep her from breaking her sheer, whilst the windward tide runs, and she may be easily shot a-head on the same side of the anchor again, as before described, when the windward tide is done.

BUT whenever the wind blows so far across the tide, that the ship can be sh•ered and kept to leeward of her anchor, I recommend this as much the best practice to keep a clear anchor.

To keep a clear Anchor when the Wind is right a-cross the Tide.

I STRONGLY recommend the simple and easy method of setting the foretopmast staysail with the weather sheet flat aft, and the helm a-weather, whereby the ship may be sheered, and kept near the same place to leeward clear of her anchor, both stood and ebb, as represented by the ship figure 1, where she naturally must be each slack tide in the situation as represented by the ship figure 2, plate the 4th. But this method of sheering a ship to leeward, being quite contrary to that bad custom which is practiced in the coal trade, of sheering ships to windward of their anchor, and though I allow them to be the greatest proficients in managing ships in narrow and difficult channels, hope to convince them that their practice in this instance is wrong. But Dame Custom, I know from experience, is a powerful adversary, and a great enemy to improvements, and will seldom submit to conviction; notwithstanding that, I shall endeavour to make a fair comparison, by describing both methods, as they are represented in plate the 4th, which was made for this purpose only, and then leave the merit of both to the determination of impartial judges. First, then let us suppose the wind to be off shore, and right a-cross the tide, as is represented plate the 4th, and that the ship figure 1, is commanded be Capt. Reason, and came to an anchor on the larboard tack, fleming against the tide, as described page 62, with her helm a-weather, to sheer the ship to leeward of the anchor, which method not only keeps the ship clear of her anchor, but also makes her ride so near end on to the tide, with the wind rather abaft the beam, that she may be helped with sail, to ride easier in a rapid tide; and when the tide is moderate, she will lie sheered right to leeward of her anchor, where she must be at each slack tide, as has been before observed. And if we suppose that she came to an anchor at slack tide, as described page 62, she will then lie with the cable and anchor in the same direction, with the wind right a-head; so that when either tide makes, so as to bring the wind upon the bow, they have only to hoist the foretopmast staysail, with the sheet to windward, and put the helm a-weather, to keep her anchor clear, as you see represented by figure 1, plate the 4th.

Now we will suppose Dame Custom commanding the ship figure 3, in the same plate, comes to an anchor on the starboard tack, steming against the tide, and puts the helm a lee, which sheers the ship, and lays her anchor in a slanting direction to windward, as represented by figure 3, till the tide begins to slack; then sets the mizentopsail a-back, and in little wind sometimes adds the maintopsail a-back, to back the ship a-stern clear of her anchor, which makes her form a sweep half round her anchor, according to her scope of cable, from her being near right to windward to right to leeward of her anchor, as represented from figure 3, to figure 2, where the ship must naturally lie in that situation every slack tide, with the wind and anchor right a-head, till the other tide makes; then they shift the helm a-lee, braces a-back the mizentopsail and yards, &c. and sheer the ship nearly right to windward, to complete almost the circle quite round her anchor every tide, as represented from figure 3, to figure 4, where it appears plain, the ship is made to take up above twice the room of the ship figure 1, consequently in that proportion her cable rubs over twice as much ground, and is more liable to sweep foul of stones, wreck, or lost anchors, &c. which may greatly hurt it, and it may get under the upper fluke of her own anchor, if the anchor does not turn in the ground as the ship is sheered round it, which probably will be done at the last and first part of the tide, when it runs easy; when if the wind is moderate, and the bottom a tough clay, it is great chance but the anchor lies with the stock to windward, by the strain upon it in that direction, as above mentioned, and the cable may go over the stock when lying flat upon the ground, as the ship was backed to leeward of the anchor, and may sweep under the upper fluke as she is sheered to windward again, which makes it evident, that by this practice, Dame Custom is likely to ride with the cable foul of the upper fluke of the anchor, as represented figure 4. And to suppose the wind and tide so moderate, that the ship does not drive, yet the strain upon the upper fluke may cant it towards the ship, and raise the farther stock arm off the ground, by which in a clay bottom, the anchor may perhaps lie in that position, so that when the tide slacks, and the ship is backed from figure 4, to figure 2, it will clear the cable of the anchor sluke; and as they sheet to windward again, from figure 2, to figure 3, the cable is likely to sweep under the anchor stock arm, that lies canted off the ground. I defy the adherents of Dame Custom to account for their cables so often getting under the anchor stock, which naturally lies flat upon the ground, but by this bad practice.

AGAIN suppose Dame Custom comes to an anchor at slack tide, the anchor will naturally lie in the same direction with the ship and wind right a-head; and when the tide makes, instead of keeping the ship to leeward, as represented figure 1, then old Dame sheers and lies to windward of the anchor, as above mentioned; and suppose the wind to change, and come so far a-baft the beam that the ship cannot be backed a-stern of her anchor, but shoots a-head as the tide slacks, in this case, if it is good holding ground, we may reasonably suppose that the anchor has not turned in the ground as the ship has gone round it; the cable will then naturally sweep the upper fluke of the anchor, so that Dame Custom is likely to be a-drift with the lee tide, if it blows fresh, or the tide runs strong, and may carry other ships a-drift with them, which makes it dangerous for Reason to lie near Dame Custom, in crowded roadsteeds, which must make great confusion when one sheers their ship to leeward, and the other to windward of their anchor, they may sheer on board each other, which I have known to be the case, and Dame Custom has then abused Reason, by calling him lubber, for sheering the ship to leeward of her anchor, when Reason, who had observed their wrong proceedings, wagered in his own defence, that Dame Custom's anchor was then soul, which proved to be so at heaving up.

THERE is so much to be said against this bad custom, of sheering to windward of the anchor, that I am surprised how it came into pract•ce, as nothing reasonable has appeared to me could be urged in favour of it: even in respect to work, to wear, and tear, all are greatly against it; so that I would advise every ship, commanded by Reason, to resort and lie together, as far from the adherents of Dame Custom as the room in the place will admit of, as they all sheer one way to leeward of their anchors, they may lie with much more safety clear of each other, in less than hall the compass of ground that Dame Custom takes up, as is made evident by plate the 4th, which I hope will prove sufficient to condemn the practice.

IT is but fai• that we remark what effect the change of wind might have upon the ship figure 1, to leeward of her anchor, when it made Dame Custom soul her anchor by being to windward of it, as mentioned above; suppose then that the wind comes four points a-baft the beam, as long as the foretopmast staysail, with the sheet to windward, will keep drawing the right way, and the helm hard a-weather, Reason to leeward of her anchor will never come near to foul it; and to suppose by the force of the wind the ship ranges a-head of the anchor, that she breaks her sheer, it will be with her head to leeward, clear of the anchor, till the tide drives her a-stern of it again; so that whilst a ship by this method can be kept to leeward of her anchor, she should never be sheered to windward of it.

On Mooring SHIPS.

RULES cannot be fixed to suit all places and all ships, but different methods may be necessary, according to the road, the size of the ship, her draft of water, and how she may be provided with ground tackle, &c. Where the tide runs very strong, and there is water enough, it is certainly best to moor water shot, the anchors and cables lying in the same direction with the tide, which can then have but little effect upon them, in comparison to what it has when a ship is moored a-cross the tide, where the power of the tide alone upon the moorings, is of itself sometimes enough to bring the anchors home. Therefore great ships that have sheet anchors, and are well manned to clear the hawse, when obliged to lie where the tide runs strong, moor with the best and small bower anchors, water shot; but small ships, having only two bower anchors, and but few hands to clear hawse, drawing less water, may moor out of the strength of the tide, with the small bower and stream anchor, and hawser a-thwart the tide, and keep the best bower anchor in reserve, as occasion may require.

WHEN a ship is to be moored only to wait for a fair wind, the best anchor, and open hawse, should be towards the foul wind quarter; but when a ship is to lie with all winds that may blow, the best anchor and open hawse should be towards the worst wind that may blow, to raise the waves, and give the ship a pitching motion, as is mentioned page 65, and must leave no more of the smallest moorings within board, than just enough to freshen the hawse on occasion; by which they will hold the longer, by having the longer scope, and the hawse will be the easier cleared.

WHERE a ship is liable to ground with the ebb, and not to float till the flood tide runs strong, the safest method is to moor a-cross the tide, which lays the ship clear from getting damage upon her own anchors; then it requires to attend and slack the mooring, that her stern may swing over upon the flood, to prevent her girting. And when moored with a small anchor and hawser, the helm should be always shifted, to sheer her towards the small anchor, to ease the strain upon the small moorings; and to lay the principal stress upon the bower anchor and cable, to ride the ship when the tide runs strong.

I HAVE been mooring a ship in a very narrow river, where the shore on each side was nothing but loose shilly stones. We laid the bower anchor close over to one side of the river, and made fast a hawser with a long bowline knot, to the middle of a twelve feet deal board, buried on the opposite shore under the shilly stones, broadside, and its lower edge a little slanting towards the ship, which held her better than an anchor would have done in its place. Another remark of this kind, which I think deserves notice, is what I have known done, where anchors placed one to back another could not be made to hold in sand, but a bulky bundle, made of rushes that grow on sand hills, buried under the sand, and trampled upon, has held so that it would break a cable made fast to it; and no doubt but any thing of the same bulk would answer the same purpose;

On keeping a clear or open HAWSE.

IN roads where ships are liable to be put in great motion by waves, which may make dangerous destruction of the moorings with a foul hawse, and the danger and trouble there is in clearing it, when the waves run high, make it highly necessary to endeavor to cause the ship to swing the right way each tide, to keep the hawse clear, which the wind will do when it blows a-cross the tide, as may be supposed in plate the 5th, and that the wind was off the shore a-cross the tide, when the ship figure 1, was moored with an open hawse towards the shore, to wait for a fair wind; whilst that wind continues, the ship will swing with her stern from the shore, and keep a clear hawse without any trouble, but when the wind comes to blow right opposite to one tide, and in the same direction with the other tide running along the shore, as represented by the ship figure 1, plate the 5th, then it requires management to make the ship swing with her stern from the shore, to keep the hawse open on both tides. The method of proceeding the first part of the windward tide, when the wind is right a-head, is fully described page 68, and to swing a ship the latter part of a windward tide, when the wind is right aft, requires only to put the helm over that way her stern is to go, as in this case to starboard, which will bring the wind on the larboard quarter; if it is little wind, the mizen, mizen staysail, and mizen topsail braced up sharp, may be set, to assist the helm as the tide slacks, to swing her the right way to keep the hawse clear, without the trouble of towing with a boat, running out a rope, and a small anchor, &c. which a calm, or the setting of the tide may sometimes require to be done.

On serving the CABLES to prevent their chaifing.

AS safety may often depend upon this, not only when the waves run high, but in smooth water where the tide runs strong, and by giving the moorings a trembling motion, may chaif them; therefore care should be taken to have them well served, not only in the way of the hawse and cut-water, but so far as to reach below the gripe; for a ship moored water shot, or at a single anchor, with a windward tide, when it blows so fresh that she ranges about, and lies a-head of her anchor, with a tight cable, which may be hurt under the bows and gripe, if not served low enough. Therefore it is certainly best to have the cables properly served, ready for mooring, as the time and place the ship is to lie in may require, as our East India ships in the passage home, when in a fine weather climate, put the proper service on their mooring cables; and in the coal trade to London, they put on their cables what they call a long and short service, to continue on for the summer's work.

THE best service that I know to preserve a cable from chaising in a storm, when the waves run high, are such as are used in the coal trade to London; it is cut from the best part of a tanned horse hide, big enough to wrap two or three times round the cable, which is readily and easily put on and taken off and much better than plats commonly used in merchant ships, which is long and troublesome to pass, and beat about the cable; and after that is liable to become slack as the cable stretches, and rubs backward and forward in the hawse; and when the ship pitches hard, it sometimes separates and makes openings between the parts of the plat, so that the cable may be chaifed in these openings, which a leather service is not subject to, being all the length of the hide in one piece. The method of putting it on the cable, is, first to wrap two or three fold of old canvass, the length of the leather service, which if too stiff to put on dry, requires only dipping in water, and beating it against any wood, which makes it immediately soft and pliable; then let as many hands as can come at it, wrap it as tight as possible upon the old canvass, round the cable, tying it tight and smooth on with sinnit, or three yarn nettles, made for that purpose, greasing them and the service very well before veering it into the hawse hole.

I WOULD advise to avoid a practice I have seen used on this occasion, that is taking a timber hitch with some nettles round the cable upon the canvass, then wrapping the leather service and the •••tles round the cable together, which raises the leather in the place of those nettles, where it will soon chaif through.

How the weakest Moorings may be best applied, to help a Ship to ride out a Storm.

IN a dangerous situation, all practicable hints, that may contribute any thing towards safety, deserve notice; and it may often happen that the small b•wer cable may be too much wore, or the small moorings known to be too weak to bear the strain of the ship to ride out a storm, when the anchor at the best cable is in danger, or expected to come home; in this case, I would recommend endeavouring to make the weak moorings serve for a backing to the best anchor and cable, contriving a traveller (as it may be properly called) of sufficient rope, to go slack round the best cable, without the hawse, and well secured with rolling hitches seized, &c. to the weak moorings that may be veered away, or let go as occasion may require's or if short of rope to make a proper traveller, a stopper may be put on without the hawse, till the end of the small moorings is put round the best cable, with overhand hitches, like a garland, and well seized, open enough that it may slide along the best cable, till it comes to the best anchor stock, which may prove such a sure backing to it, as to prevent its coming home; so that by this means, there is a much better chance to ride out a storm by the best cable, singly, than to run the risk of either anchor coming home, to bring them both a-head together, by which one cable is apt to get foul of the other anchor, and to get so entangled as to make the anchors come home, or cut that cable which is foul of the anchor, if the ship has a pitching motion.—Since the last page was printed off I have heard of a long bowline knot being made use of on this occasion, which I think is better than the over-hand hitches mentioned for this Purpose.

BUT it must be allowed, that this, as well as all other uncommon methods, requires judgment to contrive, and resolution to put the design speedily in practice, as the occasion and necessity may require, to preserve the whole when safety depends upon riding out a storm.

On Unmooring a SHIP.

THERE needs little to be said on this subject, if the ship lies in a clear roomy place, as either anchor may then be taken up first, by veering to it, or weighed with a boat, &c. But if situated among a crowd of ships, or near the shore, then it requires to look about, and consider well to take up that anchor first, that gives the clearest birth to cast the ship, or get her under way in the most advantageous manner, clear of the dangers that may be near. For want of conduct on such occasions, I have known great damage done.

IT is observed in the address, what was said by the celebrated Doctor Halley, that the System of navigation in his time, depended upon three L's, Lead, Latitude, and Look-out, each of which deserve particular notice, as safety in my opinion will always greatly depend upon them.

On heaving the HAND-LEAD.

THIS method of sounding the depth of water is peculiar to our seamen, and I judge had its rise in the coasting and coal trade to London, where their success and safety depend greatly upon it; and which make them so dexterous, by their great practice, so that they will heave the lead far enough to reach the bottom, and give true soundings in eleven or twelve fathom water, when the ship may be going at the rate of four or five knots through the water; and their rules are equal to their dexterity, and which deserve mentioning, and should in my opinion be followed as standard rules for the hand lead, for want of which being properly used, I have known many misfortunes and fatal losses, which might have been avoided. I have heard of a commander of a large ship, in the above coal trade, who in dangerous places always hove the lead himself; and cunned, or ordered the ship about, according to the soundings, which he sung, or spoke out aloud as the other men.

Rules commonly observed by a good Leads-Man.

WHEN first ordered to the lead, he takes care that the inward end of the line is made fast, to prevent loosing it. 2d. That the lead and line may run clear, and come fair to hand, he takes them out before that shrowd next to his foremost hand where he stands to heave. 3d. The first cast of the lead he only heaves out about six or seven fathom of line, which prevents the lead being over hove, and readily makes known that the ship is not in immediate danger, when no ground is found at that depth; and it is an easy way to clear the line for a deeper cast the next heave, if the occasion requires it. 4th. When sounding in less than five fathom water, or when there happens a sudden alteration of less water, he heaves the lead as fast as possible, and speaks out the sounding briskly, with a loud voice, and does not sing them out, which takes so much time that I have known a ship to come a-ground before the sounding was made known.

On singing out the SOUNDINGS.

THIS custom is certainly a benefit to a fleet of ships, sailing near together in difficult channels, where safety depends upon the lead, as in the coal trade to London, where I suppose the practice: began; and finding the advantage of hearing each others soundings as a guide to the whole.

ANOTHER advantage attending this practice, is, where a commander is not well acquainted, he may go of the deck, and look at the soundings laid down in the chart, or instructions for the place, and hear the depth of water sung out at the same time to compare how they agree.

BUT it must be allowed that there are risks attending this practice, by the lead's-man standing still all the time he is singing out the soundings; for which reason the above 4th rule for a good lead's-man, should be strictly observed, to avoid the danger there mentioned, to have happened whilst the lead's-man was singing out the soundings, with a long tone, thus, bee, thee, mark, three, &c. in which time the ship came a-ground, which might have been avoided, had the soundings been spoke out quick, as above recommended. This makes me think, that it may be a disputed point whether the soundings may not be as well or better heard, when spoke out quick with a loud voice, than when they are slowly sung out; if so, the advantage must be greatly in favour of speaking out the soundings, on all occasions.

On Sounding with the DEEPSEA LEAD.

I WOULD recommend what I have found from experience to be an advantage, that is, having this lead only fifteen pounds weight, with a smaller line than common kept ready upon a reel, made large enough for the purpose, like a log reel, and hung up in beckets, where a man can readily take and hold it between his hands, on any sudden occasion; and that the lead may sink the faster, to have small and few marks, as the hand-lead and line will get soundings at any time, in ten fathom water; the deepsea line need only be marked from ten to seventeen fathom, as common, and from twenty upwards with knots as small as those in the log-line.

THIS lead requires various methods of heaving it, according to the depth of water expected, and the ship's head or lee way at the time the lead is to be hove When a ship is sailing right an end, without much lee way, if soundings cannot be got by heaving it from the cat head, or spritsail yard, a man must carry the bight of the line to the jibboom end, and with a tight line swing the lead forward, when a man gives it all the force he can from the spritsail yard. This method well managed, will heave the lead the farthest it can be done, to get soundings, without bringing the ship to.

To bring a Ship too to Sound.

THE difficulty of getting true soundings, in a gale of wind, increases in proportion to the depth of water, and the violence of the wind and waves. The best method that I have experienced, is to pass the lead from the weather quarter, round the stern to leeward, without all to the fore part of the quarter deck; and a man to carry the bight of the line to the lee main yard arm, which is to be laid square when the helm is put a-lee, to bring the ship too; and when the ship begins to shoot to windward by her head way, then the lead is to be swung right to leeward from the deck, whilst the man at the yard arm, with a tight line, swings it as far as possible to leeward of the ship, which gains to windward of the lead whilst the head way continues, and then runs her stern up to the wind by the sternway, backs near to where the lead was hove, by which means, as mentioned in box hauling page 53, a great deal of line may be run out, nearly up and down; and the lead being armed with tallow, makes it certain whether it has struck the bottom or no, and if it has, shews what sort of a bottom there is.

WHEN and how oft it may be necessary to try for soundings, must be left to the discretion of the commanding officer, and will be more or less so, according to the nature of the coast, place, or situation of the ship; the want of it being done in due time, is well known to have occasioned many fatal losses. Therefore they who neglect heaving the lead, will always be blamed in proportion to the degree of danger, and the loss the neglect may occasion.

On the LATITUDE.

THE latitude when it can be got by a good observation, with a good instrument, must be allowed to be the only sure guide we have in navigation; because it not only gives to a certainty, the ship's place, North and South, but it likewise helps us to form a judgment how far a dependance may be put on our reckoning, East or West, in proportion as the latitude by the account kept of the ship's way, agrees or disagrees with the latitude observed in the passage in general; so more or less dependance accordingly may be put upon the longitude reckoned to be in.

On the Latitude of Places being wrong laid down.

WHERE people are strangers to places that they have not laid down from good authority, in new charts or books of established good character, but have them only in old books, or general charts on a small scale, where the latitudes may be very erroneous, great caution should be used to avoid the ill consequences that may attend such errors, when the ship may be drawing near to danger, or in making a land-fall, &c.

I WAS in a ship bound from Lisbon to Mazagan, a Portuguese garrison on the coast of South Barbary, with which in very fine weather and a fair wind, falling in as we thought by the latitude observed, we were in a fair way to find the place, the latitude of which we had only laid down in an old general chart, on a small scale. Being all of us strangers, we traced the coast close along shore by day, and laid the ship to at night; thus we searched for the place so long in vain, that we despaired of finding it, therefore it was resolved to try if it was possible to turn the ship to windward, against a lee current then running, and go to Gibralter to get a pilot to find the place, when in our way back, we found it was above a degree of latitude to the northward of where we had ever looked for it, owing to its being wrong laid down in the chart, and to our officers not getting every possible information, concerning a place where we were not acquainted before proceeding on the voyage.

AT closing this subject, I cannot help acknowledging that great service done to all seafaring men by Mr. HADLEY, in the invention of his excellent Quadrant, for observing the latitude in so easy and certain a manner, and which I can say from experience is most excellent, when compared to our old instruments for that and the many other useful purposes it answers, in taking angles horizontally in surveying, and of the sun and moon, or moon and stars, towards finding the longitude, and equal altitudes to find true time, &c.

On LOOK-OUT.

A GOOD look out may justly be said to contribute more than any thing towards safety, not only from shores or shoals, &c. but from ships running on board each other at sea, which no doubt often has, and may prove fatal to all those who neglect it. Therefore the utmost care should be taken, that this duty is not done in a careless manner; and the transgressors should be punished.

I WAS in a ship, in company with a fleet of ships of war, turning to windward in the night, with a fresh breeze of wind, when our mate of the watch, as walking the weather side of the quarter deck, was alarmed with hearing called out from another ship, "a good lookout before there," and an answer made by several "aye, aye," —the mate ran to leeward, looked under the mainsail, and saw a frigate on the other tack running right on board us; her jibboom run within our lee mizen shrouds, and tore them all away; her sheet anchor fluke took our main chain plates, tore them all away, and plowed away the plank and timbers till it got clear through our ship's side, before one ship stopt the others way; and were so locked and entangled together, that had it been a ruff, instead of a smooth sea, as it happened to be, one or both ships must have sunk, before they could have been got clear of each other.

THIS shews, notwithstanding the strict discipline used on board our King's ships, that this important duty is negligently done there, as well as in other ships, by careless men not considering how much depends upon their looking out, when sculking or diverting themselves with stories upon the forecastle; they without looking out at all, will answer regularly to the word of command, aye, aye, which occasioned the above misfortune. For these reasons, as long as the weather permits, the lookers out stationed on deck, should be made to walk each man by himself, which will prevent them from being diverted, or sleeping on this duty; for it is well known that a man may stand and sleep, but he cannot walk and sleep; and to make this duty both easy and well done, it should be taken spell and spell, according to the number of the watch that can be trusted, and as circumstances may require.

THE widest and clearest part of the ocean must be allowed to require a lookout; for any two ships that are crossing each others track, may meet and destroy both; and the worse the weather, the more occasion there must be for caution. I was crossing the western ocean, where we had a very narrow escape, sailing with a gale of wind, quartering under mainsail and foresail, when the lookers out upon the forecastle, seeing a light right a-head, took it for, and said one to the other, it is a star, for which it passed till we came so near, before it was perceived to be a ship lying to with a light out, that we only just got clear of her stern, by putting our helm hard a-port, which just saved both ships from destruction.

TO prevent being deceived on this occasion, I think it necessary here to remark, that when any light appears in the horrizon, or near the water's edge, that it cannot be a star, for the atmosphere or air so obscures the stars, that they cannot be seen to rise or set in the horrizon. When drawing near to any danger, where safety may depend entirely on a good look out, if the weather permits, and the ship is manageable, and will work under her topsails, with the mainsail and foresail in the brales, it gives a fair opening for the officer as well as others upon deck, to look round them, to see any dangers as may appear. The little difference thus made in the ship's sailing, is not to be compared with the advantage given for safety, or preventing damage on such occasions.

On looking out for Land.

IT is found to be necessary in foreign voyages, to propose a reward for the man that first sees and calls out land, if it proves to be really such; and if it be not such, I think it is a bad custom to abuse him, if he happens to give a false alarm, by mistaking a cloud for land; because it is well known, that the land sometimes appears much like a cloud, or a cloud much like land, at a distance, or the land may be covered by a cloud, that often makes it difficult to distinguish one from the other. For which reason a man should not be made a sufferer for a mistake of this kind, but should be encouraged, and have liberty to call out from the mast head, that there is something like land appears; this might prevent the bad consequences that sometime happen, from people being afraid to speak in good time, for fear of being mistaken and meeting with discouragement.

On looking out aloft for Shoals, &c.

THIS duty well done, may prevent a ship coming a-ground; therefore the looker out at the mast head, on this occasion, should be encouraged, and strongly recommended to make known without fear or reserve, all alterations or different appearances of the water; a seeming change of colour should not be omitted, tho' it may often proceed from the reflection of clouds, yet it may prove shoal water, and neglect may be fatal; for which reason an officer should always take the trouble to go up to look at what is noticed from the mast head, on all occasions; and all riplings, broken water, or the appearing of an extraordinary smooth water, when the sea is rough, should all be strictly noticed, as they may prove to be great dangers.

FOR want of attending to this smoothness on the water, from the mast heed, I had a very narrow escape from running the ship on shore, in turning to windward through the Gulph of Florida, when standing towards the Colleradoes, with a design to make as bold with them as possible, in order to make a longer stretch on the other tack. I ordered the man at the mast head to look out sharp for broken water, which we expected to see at a sufficient distance; but instead of meeting with breakers, we fell into an extraordinary smooth water, all at once, which was taken no notice of from the mast head; we tacked the ship in a great hurry, and had but four fathom water when the ship was got about, and was but just clear of the ground.

On seeing Shoals in clear Water, from the Mast-head.

IN those seas where the Water is very clear, and the weather fine, frequently from the mast head may be seen shoals that the ship might touch upon; and especially if the sun shines a-stern, or is abaft the beam when the ship goes her course. This enlightens and makes more visible the parts of the shoals towards the ship, so that from the mast head, I have had the experience of cunning a ship in the best of the deep, clear of dangerous shoals, through channels where we were not acquainted; but a rough sea, or the sun happening to shine a-head of the ship the way she is going, hinders,
The sun shining a-head hinders shoals being seen that way.

the shoals being seen under water, though it may be clear and smooth. I had this last case confirmed, by an instance in looking out for shoals, called the Silver Keys, or Plate Rocks, lying off the N. E. part of Hyspaniola; the sun happened to shine a-head of the ship, when a part of the shoals we had passed was seen a-stern, from the quarter deck, before any was seen from the mast head, which made me hasten to the mast head, very angry with the man looking out, till I was convinced that he was not in fault; for nothing could be seen under water a-head, the way he was ordered to look out, owing to the dark or shaded parts of the shoals being towards the ship, and the water reflecting the sun's rays upon the eyes of the looker out, that prevented us seeing the dangers. I ordered the helm a-weather, and brought the sun aft, and cunned the ship out again clear of these shoals, which we could see very plain with the sun a-stern; they seemed to be coral rocks, here and there one in a stragling manner, with about four fathom water upon them that we had passed.

On the Longitude at Sea by Observation.

I VENTURE sailor like, to make some remarks on this fourth L, the discovery of which hath been long expected, and is still laudably pursued and encouraged by all the learned nations of the world.

THE great rewards offered, and the encouragement given by our government, has occasioned many methods to be tried for this useful discovery; of late a fair trial has been given to Mr. ERWIN'S Marine Chair, to observe by Jupiter's moons at sea; Mr. HARRISON'S famous Time Piece, which performed so well in the voyage of trial to the West Indies, as to gain £. 10,000 reward; and now what is recommended and published by order of the Board of Longitude, MIER'S Tables, and MASKALYNES Nautical Almanack, to observe and calculate by the sun, moon, and stars, which I doubt will require too nice observations, and too long calculations, to be performed without errors, by the generality of such seamen as at this time navigate ships at sea, who will think it too difficult to come near true time of day or night, on this uncertain element; and every minute out in that, makes an error of a quarter of a degree of longitude.

Except the Longitude can be come at by a certain easy method, it may do more harm than good among the vain positive part of men.

THEREFORE without this much laboured for discovery, can be brought within the reach of common capacities, and learning to perform with some certainty, without being liable to many errors, which every man is subject to in nice observations and long calculations among a multitude of figures, it may be productive of effects contrary to the design; especially by putting people off their guard, and giving too much confidence to the vain and positive part of men, who cannot bear to be thought wrong in their reckoning. Many instances I could give of this disposition, but will only mention one, who, though he was steering an easterly course in the night, and was told that land was seen a-head, he replied, "that the devil must bring it there if there was any, which he could not believe." —The consequence of his obstinacy, was the loss of a fine large ship and a rich cargo.

THE Board of Longitude, in order to facilitate the discovery that is expected to be found by this last mentioned method, has ordered, that the masters for the royal navy must qualify themselves, by learning to pass an examination to shew that they understand the Nautical Almanack, which is a task, in my opinion, that cannot reasonably be expected from many of our most hardy and expert navigators, whose education has been mostly from early youth, through the hard, laborious, and busy scenes of life at sea, and have never had the opportunity, to get the learning that is necessary, to understand the true principles of this Almanack.

ON this occasion, with humble submission to the learned, I speak for myself and many masters of ships, who can conduct a ship to any part of the world, that hath its latitude and longitude right laid down, without having learned so much astronomy at school, as to understand the characters, signs, and terms, &c. that are used in those Almanacks, to describe our system or set of worlds, with their moons and their motions round the sun; which terms, &c. are in an unknown tongue to one who is but a mere english reader: and our world and moon, with their motions and places, are there set forth in a complex mysterious manner, telling us every day where the sun is in the Ecliptick, where no star is to be seen at that time, which makes us so little acquainted with the fixed stars, as to think that they and the sun, according to the old notion, go round us every day, as they appear to do by our world's daily motion. And as it is from our knowledge of the fixed stars, that lie near the moon's path, that the observations for this discovery are to be principally made, and which shews the great necessity, not only on this account, but for many other benefits to seamen,
To have our suns system of worlds and the fixed stars more easily described to seamen.

for us to endeavour to get the course, motion, and place of our world and moon, described and represented in such a plain manner, that such navigators as are above mentioned may form some notion how we and the five other worlds called planets, that belong to our system, are constantly changing places, each in their different orbits, or paths; and going faster or slower according to their distance, round the sun once in their year, in wonderful order, from the fixed stars in one part of the firmament, round to the same stars again, according to the laws given them by the Almighty Creator and conductor of the universe, as is illustrated, and in a particular masterly manner shewn in FERGUSON'S Astronomy, where the names of the twelve signs in the Zodiack, and the rest of the constellations are in english, whereby the fixed stars are to be known. But the most fruitful imagination cannot find the least resemblance to those figures they are commonly called by, and which require a great while to learn; so that notwithstanding the pains taken by this extraordinary self-taught Philosopher, to whom I acknowledge myself under the greatest obligations, as what little I have learned in that science is from him, yet I cannot help thinking, that this ancient method of teaching the motions of our system, is perplexing, and is a burthen to the memory, for the reasons given above; and that it might be much better and easier taught to seamen, by the form of the chart of the Mariner's Compass.

IT must be allowed that we excel the ancients greatly in shipping, and in navigating them,
A compass chard ecliptic recommended instead of the twelve signs.

since time has discovered and brought into use, that noble instrument the Mariner's Compass, by which a seaman knows how to steer a ship, and to calculate the ship's way, he must understand how to quarter and divide this Compass into the 360 degrees, which extended out in straight lines from the sun's center, might represent the 360 degrees of the ecliptick, in a much more familiar manner to seamen in general than the 12 signs. Therefore to answer the above good purpose, I would recommend to those in power, to get a set of large plates engraved, such as are used now to stamp handkerchiefs with; the first to represent our solar system as it really is, with the sun in the center and its rays to form the sea compass chard, with the 360 degrees extending outwards, through a large circle divided into the months and days of our year; the North point pointing to the 21st. of December, which may properly be called and understood to be the northermost part of the world's orbit, as we then enter into what is now the northermost constellation in the ecliptic, called Gemini, which makes our shortest day, when at the same time the South latitudes have their longest day; the reasons for it, and the other seasons of our year will appear evident, by having our world delineated on the eight capital points of this compass ecliptic, N. N W. W. S W. &c. round the sun, as Mr. FERGUSON has done in his 5th plate of Astronomy, from which, and a scheme he drew for me to make observations on the tides, I formed this design of what I call the seamen's system, and had one drawn and put upon a wheel work planetarian, to observe whether our neighbouring worlds passing near us in their orbits, had any influence on the tides, but found none.

THUS by having our globe represented in different parts of her orbit which she moves in, at the rate of near one of the 360 degrees of the ecliptic every day, and in that time turns once round on the center of her daily motion, which is at the poles that lie in a direction of 23½ degrees, inclinable towards the plane of her orbit, and the year round always keeps pointing towards the same part of the starry firmament, as is evident to any common observer, who may see how our North pole always points towards what we call the North pole star, that never goes below our horrizon in North latitudes, by which, and a little thinking, it may be perceived in general, how our nights and days, with their alterations, and the sun's declination are brought yearly about, by the sun always enlightening that half part of our globe that is turned directly towards it; and as it is on the 21st. of December when our globe is on the North point of the ecliptic, when I would have the year for this system to begin, when the sun shines directly upon the South tropick, its light reaches 90 degrees round on our globe, takes in all the South polar circle, where it is all day, by its then pointing most towards the sun, when it is all night in the North polar circle, because it points most from the sun, as represented in the figure on the North point of the ecliptic.

BUT by comparing small things that can be seen, often helps us to form an idea of what is too big for our senses to discern; a bomb shell of 12 inches diameter, forced into motion through our air, may be seen by its fuse to keep turning round and round on its center of gravity, as it moves forward; so our globe, in round numbers about 8000 miles diameter, insensible to us, moves forward in her orbit, as may be supposed, at the rate of about 1000 miles in every minute of time, whilst it is known to keep regularly turning on the center of its poles a quarter of a degree of longitude, which makes 15 degrees for every hour of time, that brings about midday and midnight to all the different parts of our globe, between the polar circles in 24 hours, as they are represented by the 24 meridians in the figures, which all center or cross each other at the poles, divides our globe into the 360 degrees of longitude, East and West, as well as measures the 360 degrees of latitude, North and South.

THE daily and yearly motions of our system of worlds,

How our system of worlds with their moons move round the sun.

On our four seasons. The winter quarter.

with their moons round them are all one way, that is from West Southerly about to East, and from East Northerly about to West again, what we seamen understand and call against the sun, or its apparent motion, as our globe is represented when it passes the North point of the ecliptic, and goes through our winter N W quarter, from N to W in its orbit, which brings our North polar circle more and more out of the dark into the light, and lessens the sun's South declination every day, till it comes to nothing on the 20th of March, when we are upon the West point of the ecliptic, and the center of our daily motion is then broadside to the sun, which shines right upon our equal night line, and reaches both poles that make equal day and night, to all the inhabitable parts of our globe, when the sun rises and sets on the true East and West points of the compass, without variation, and at the 6th hour in the morning and evening of that day.

WE then enter into our spring, and S W quarter of the ecliptic,
The spring quarter.

and move forward every day as above mentioned, from the West to the South point of our orbit, as may be seen by the scheme how our North latitude days lengthen, and the sun's North declination increases to 23½ degrees on the 21st. of June, when the sun shines right upon the North tropic, and reaches over all our North polar circle, which then points most towards the sun, when the South polar circle points the most from it that it can do the year round, as represented by the figure on the South point of the ecliptic.

WE next go through our summer S E quarter of our orbit,
The summer quarter.

from the South to the East point of the ecliptic on the 22d of September, when we are again broadside, in the center of our daily motion to the sun, which then shines directly upon our equal night line, and reaches both poles, that it rises and sets on the true East and West points of the compass, and at the 6th hour morning and evening, the same as when we are on the West point of the ecliptic on the 20th of March.

The harvest quarter.

TO complete the year, we go through our harvest or N E quarter of our orbit, from the East to the North point of the ecliptic, which every day brings the South pole more into the light for its half years day; and the North pole goes as much into the dark for its half years night, until the 21st. of December, when we are upon the North point of the ecliptic again; and the sun having its greatest South declination,
What occasions the half years day and night at the poles.

shines right upon the South tropic, and enlightens all the South polar circle, when the North polar circle is all in the dark, owing to the South pole then pointing 23½ degrees towards the Sun, when the North pole points as much from the sun, which is then true South from us; at noon by the compass as we are true North from it, which may be perceived by the meridian pointing right to it.
At the begining of the four seasons, when we may see the sun and we, bear true N. and S. E. and W. from each other by the compass.

And on the 20th of March, when we are on the West point of the ecliptic, the rising sun bears true East by the compass. And on the 21st. of June, when we are on the South point of the ecliptic, our North pole then points 23½ degrees towards the sun, which from between the tropics is as it bears by the compass true North from us, as may be observed by the noon meridian pointing straight to it. And on the 21st. of September, when we are on the East point of the ecliptic, the setting sun then bears true West by the compass, from us, as we are true East from it. And these four compass quarters of our orbit, whereby our four seasons and quarters of the year are distinguished, contain each 90 degrees, which complete the 360 degrees of the compass ecliptic; which drawn out to the extent of a large handkerchief, will give room for all that is necessary to answer this purpose.
Eight different places and faces of our moons and Jupiter with his moons in minia¦ture to be added to the scheme.

Our moon with a different face in her orbit, may be put to each figure of our globe; and Jupiter's moons, as Mr. FERGUSON has ingeniously done in his 5th plate of astronomy, might shew how they may be observed, going into and coming out of Jupiter's shadow, from our different meridians, in the different parts of our orbit. And without Saturn's orbit, may be placed the stars to the fourth magnitude of the 12 signs of the Zodiac, as the before mentioned necessary observations for the longitude are to be made.

BY this scheme, and as the almanacks give the sun's place every day at noon,
The Almanacks to give our worlds place at midnight in the degrees of the compass ecliptic.

to shew our world's place at midnight, in degrees of the compass ecliptic, which in this scheme goes through the days of the month, and which will point out very plain, what stars of the ecliptic will be brought upon, or nearest to the meridian every midnight in the year; this would soon make us so acquainted with them, as to know all the principal stars of the 12 signs, many of which are always visible in clear nights, where we navigate; so that on many important occasions, exclusive of the longitude, to know them as they appear would be of the greatest service to seamen, and more especially to the thinking part of navigators who never learned astronomy, they may hereby form a notion how we are situated and move, in our daily and yearly motions round the sun, conjectured to be from us the distance of about a hundred million of miles, among the other worlds that belong to our system; and also how observations for the longitude may be made by Jupiter's moons as above mentioned,
To try to observe Jupiters moons at sea with Dollands improved spyglasses recommended.

to get the difference of time from Greenwich, as given in the almanacks, allowing four minutes of time for every degree, which will give the longitude in East or West; and by comparing DOLLAND'S improved spying-glass with the reflecting telescope. I cannot help thinking, that the weather may often permit these observations to be made at sea, with DOLLAND'S best glasses, which certainly deserve a fair trial, as it is well known, some officers are by practice so expert with them, that they can stand upon their sea legs, as it is called, and balance themselves in a surprising manner, so as to counter act the ship's waving motion, when they are using the spying glass, or taking observations; so that by practice it is to be hoped, these observations will become of great use, at least in smooth water. And as we pass Jupiter in his orbit, once nearly every year, it should be noticed, as represented in the scheme, that when we are coming up with Jupiter, to observe his moons going into his shadow, and when we have past him, to observe them coming out of it; and that their motion round him is the same as our moon round us against the sun, from the right hand to the left.

I WOULD further recommend to those in power,
To have two large star spheres made public.

to have two more large plates engraved and made public, with the West and East spheres of the fixed stars, as represented on the best celestial globes; the first plate to begin and continue the degrees of the equator and ecliptic, according to the yearly course of our globe, from our winter to our summer solstice; and the second plate from our summer to our winter solstice again, and to have the days of the year added to the degrees of the equator; the meridians of which will point out our situation, to know what principal stars will be visible, and come upon, or near the meridian, every midnight in the year; and to have them named, marked, or numbered, so as to be better known to an english reader, than the hard names and characters they now bear. And as the equator crosses the ecliptic that extends to the opposite sides of the North and South tropicks, and the poles of the ecliptic to the opposite sides of the polar circles in each of these spheres, shews by inspection, from the days of the month at the equator, the declination of the stars, that lie in the plain of the ecliptic the year round, occasioned by the obliquity of our worlds motion to the plain of the ecliptic, as before mentioned.

THESE three schemes, thus made publick on handkerchiefs, done by masterly hands, in my opinion would induce the inquisitive part of seamen, who are so much on duty upon deck in the night, to employ their vacant time in comparing these representations, and what has been said on the occasion, to what may be observed and learned from the grand system of created nature, the general laws given to our sun's system of worlds, to make them and the principal fixed stars more easily and generally known.
The East-India trade best adapted for these improvements.

The East India trade is best adapted for these improvements, because they run most of their great extent of longitude, out, and home, in pretty high south latitudes; which give them the favourable opportunity of seeing and observing all the stars, as well as the planets, as they appear to the southward a well as the northward of the ecliptic; and can compare any trials or observations that may be made for the longitude, with the variation of the compass, the curve lines of which lie near north and south, in their long track from the coast of Brazil to India; so that they correct their longitude by the variation of the compass, which they find to great nicety very readily, by their great practice in taking azimouths and amplitudes at all opportunities.

On making PASSAGES.

FROM all that I have seen, those seamen in the East India trade are the most perfect in the open seas. And those in the coal trade to London the most perfect in difficult narrow channels, and tide ways, where they sail by the voyage, which makes it their interest to be as dexterous and expeditious as possible in working and managing their ships, which in general are 4 or 500 tons, and which makes this trade the best nursery in the world for hardy, active, and expert seamen. And as most ships must be conducted through channels, or narrow waters, in their way to sea, I will endeavour to remark what I think deserves notice in making passages in this coal trade.

On making PASSAGES in the Coal Trade.

IN the navigation from Newcastle to London, two thirds of the way is amongst dangerous shoals, and intricate channels, as may be seen by the chart of the coast, and the ships are as large as the sh•• channels will admit them to get through with the flow of the tide, which requires to be known to a great exactness to proceed in proper time, and dexterous pilots to navigate through those channels with safety and expedition, to make so many voyages in the year, that they may be gainers by their ships, which are numerous as well as large, and managed by the fewest men and in a more compleat manner than in any other trade that I know of in the world, considering the difficulty of the navigation, and how deep the ships are loaded, and how lightly they are balasted, yet they meet with very few losses in proportion to the number of ships, which the owners generally run the risque of, and thereby save the expence of insurance, by which means they can afford to freight their ships cheaper than others, so that they are become the chief carriers in the timber, iron, hemp, and flax trades.

BLOWING weather and contrary winds, often collect a great many of these colliers together, so that they sail in great fleets, striving with the utmost dexterity, diligence and care, against each other, to got first to market with their coals, or for their turn to load at New-castle, where at the first of a Westerly wind, after a long Easterly one, there are sometimes two or three hundred ships turning to windward in, and sailing out of that harbour in one tide; the sight of so many ships, passing and crossing each other in so little time and room, by their dexterous management, is said to have made a travelling French gentleman of rank, to hold up his hands and exclaim, "that it was there France wa conquered;" the entrance into the harbour being so very narrow, with dangerous rocks on one side, and a steep sand bank on the other, with a hard shoal bar a-cross, where the waves of the sea frequently run very high, and puts them under the necessity of being very brisk and dexterous.

WHAT is most worthy remarking here when they are going out with a fair wind in their great deep loaded ships,
To prevent striking, drives rolling over the bar.

and the waves running high upon the bar, that they would make the ship strike upon it, if she was to sail out pitching against the head waves, to prevent which when they come to the bar, they in a very masterly manner bring the ship to, and she drives over, rolling broad side to waves, which management preserves her from striking.

A ship got to sea by d
•

iving stern foremost with the tide.I HAVE heard of a bold single adventurer getting to sea out of this harbour, when many ships lay windbound with the wind and waves right in, and right upon the shore without the harbour; he having a small handy ship, and no doubt, materials and men that could be depended upon, made every thing snug and ready, as the occasion required, and got as near the bar as she could ride with safety, and had the sails, that were designed to be carried, furled with rope-yarns that would easily break; he then took the advantage as may be supposed, of the first of the ebb of a high strong spring tide when there was water enough and so drove over the bar, stern foremost, with the sails all furled and the yards braced sharp up, (as mentioned page 54) by the strength of the tide out of the harbour, 'till they reached the sea tide from the southward along the coast, then put the helm hard a-starboard, and brought the ship by the wind on the larboard tack, and expeditiously set all the sails they could carry; the tide checking the ship two points on the lee bow helped her to get to windward off the lee shore, so that they made their course good along the coast, and got their passage.

WHEN it happens that a great fleet of loaded ships sails out in one tide, with the first of a westerly wind, those that draw the least water take the advantage and get over the bar first to sea, where they strive and carry all the sail possible to get and keep a-head of each other, and the fastest sailing and best managed ships commonly get the advantage whilst they are in the open and clear part of the sea, till they come to work out of Yarmouth roads, where for want of water the ships of the greatest draft are often obliged to stay far the flowing of the tide, and each ship is glad to follow another that they know draws more water than themselves when going through dangerous channels,
What advantage they make of each other when sailing in fleets.

this collects many of them near together again for their mutual safety, each heaves the lead and makes known aloud the soundings which often proves the principal guide to the whole fleet, as by that they find and keep the best of the deep in the intricate channels they pass through▪ and in which they often have a great deal of turning to windward against strong westerly winds. When they are obliged to stop the lee tide they do it with the best bower anchor and cable to the better end, which makes them so expert in heaving up their anchors, and getting under way, as well as working their ships to windward (as particularly described page 50) and especially up the Swin channel, in such weather when they would not venture to proceed with a fair wind, this seems a paradox to many people, therefore it may be of service to explain their singular conduct on this occasion.

WHEN they turn to windward up the Swin in dark hazey weather, they know by their soundings when they are in a fair way,
Why they choose
〈◊〉

turning wind, rather than a fair one for safety. and what side of the channel they are on, and by standing quite across the main channel from side to side avoid the danger of being hooked in, on the wrong side of spits of sand into swatches where the tide runs through, and where there is the same soundings at the entrance as in the right channel, which is the reason that with a fair wind and hazey weather, a compass course is not to be relied upon, therefore each ship, very artfully, endeavours to get a leader that they know draws more water than themselves, and the leading ship knowing their danger running no farther than they think is safe,
How they steer by one another in hazy weather.

commonly lets go her anchor, the next following ship apprehending the same danger, has their anchors ready and lets it go just above the first ship, and the next steers close past these two ships and comes to an anchor just above them, and so on with the next, till the whole fleet forms a line one above the other, so that the ship that was first becomes last, when they commonly again heave up her anchor, and steer close by the whole fleet if they are perceived to ride a-float and the next ship follows them, and either comes to an anchor again above the uppermost ship as besofe, or proceeds forward, according as they find by the soundings, by which they know that they have past the dangers they were afraid of and gets into a safe track, where they can depend upon the compass course, then they set and carry all the sail possible to get or keep a-head of each other.

THEIR management in working these large ships to windward,
Their dexterous management in London river.

up most parts of London river with their main-sails set is likewise remarkable, and from their great practice knowing the depth of water according to the time of tide, and how much the ship will shoot a-head in stays; they stand upon each tack to the greatest nicety close from side to side as far as possible things will admit of to keep in a fair way, and where eddies occasion the true tide to run very narrow, or ships &c. lie in the way so as not to give room to turn to windward, they very dexterously brail up mainsail and soresail, and drives to windward with the tide under their topsails by such rules as has been described, and in the Pool where there is so little room to pass through such crowds of ships, their management has afforded me the greatest pleasure, and when they get near their designed birth, to what a nicety they let go the anchor, veers out the cable to run freely as the occasion may require, so as to bring the ship up exactly in time in surprising little room, clear of the other ships, and lays her easily and fairly along side of the tier of ships where they moor, so that as they say they can work and lay their ships to a boats length as occasion requires. And there is no doubt but that to shorten the voyage by which the men are paid, occasions this extraordinary industry, and dexterous management, every man for his own interest here exerts himself, encouraging and striving to get before and excel each other, in doing the necessary duty. When it happens that the ships come a-ground, they readily first carry out a catch anchor and towline, and if that is difficient, they haul out a bower anchor by it, to heave the ship off. In heaving up their anchors briskly with a windlass, they greatly excel other merchant ships, but the difference of men as well as things, can only be known by comparison; I had a ship in the merchant's service, that hove with nine handspikes double man'd at the windlass, to heave up the small bower anchor, which we found so difficult and took up so much time, that to avoid the risques we run in getting the ship under way in narrow waters, I was going to have this anchor changed for a less, till at London, I happened to employ a mate and seven men from a Collier,

••

ff•r • of 〈…〉 up an ancient. to transport the ship to the Graving Dock at Deptford, when these seven men, only, hove up this anchor by two brisk motions, for each square of the windlass, in a quarter of the time that it used to be done by 18 men, and this difference was intirely owing to their dexterity, learn'd by great practice; they rise with their handspikes, and heave exactly all together with a regular brisk motion, which unites their powers into one. And they are equally brisk and clever in warping, or transporting a ship with ropes, and likewise in handing, reefing and steering, &c.

On making PASSAGES in Merchant Ships.

IF the ship, in her way to sea, requires a qualified Pilot, who is liable to be called to an account for any misfortune, it is but reasonable that he should be obeyed, and consulted by the ships officers, and that they should see all things necessary, both men and materials, be ready to proceed in proper time, otherwise the Pilot may justly refuse to take charge of the ship; for want of these necessary preparations I have known many bad accidents happen.

THESE ships in general, I can say from experience, compared with the colliers just mentioned, are under great disadvantages in the dexterity of their men to work and manage them, in narrow channels and tide-ways, their crews in common being a mixture of good and bad seamen, and in heaving up their anchors with a windlass, the efforts of the good men are lost among the bad, who for want of practice or a willing mind, do not keep time to heave altogether with the good men, but heave in a lubberly manner one after another, which occasions the great difference mentioned in heaving up that anchor, which seven men performed, much better than eighteen whose strength was so divided. Sailing by the month, makes the lazy bad part of a ships crew more backward in doing their duty, as being no way interested to expedite the voyage.

IF the channels are narrow, with swatches joining them,
Why two objects for leading marks should be endeavoured after.

that occasion cross tides amongst shoals that are under water, all possible pains should be taken to get two objects for leading marks that lie nearly in the same direction with the channel, which are much better than any single mark, buoy, or beacon, to which single mark a ship may be kept steming towards, and may seem to go in a fair way to it, yet by the tide or lee way, may be carried insensibly out of the channel on shore, by which I have known great loss and damage, for want of being strictly noticed and guarded against, by observing the true bearings of the compass, or the lead and its stray line how the ship goes over the ground, different to what she stems.

GOING with the ebb tide, makes it much more dangerous than proceeding with the flood, and especially where there is a great flow of water, which falls fast in proportion, so that if the ship comes a-ground there is little chance of getting off again that tide, therefore it requires the more care and caution, and when it happens that you are obliged to proceed forward in the night, if a boat can be sent to shew a light where the buoys or dangers lie, that you have to pass, I can say from experience, it may often prove a good method to keep clear of the ground.

IF it happens by the set of the ebb tide, &c. that the ship is found to be out of the proper channel upon a shoal, and the wind so that you cannot shoot her off with the sails, it should be immediately resolved what is best to be done, whether the time of tide affords water to give the ship a chance to drive over the shoal, or let go the anchor, and endeavour to warp into the channel again; this has been my case, when I ordered the anchor to be let go, and begun to warp, but the tide fell so fast that the ship grounded upon the shoal, and I perceived afterwards she would have had water enough to have drove over the shoal, if we had not let go the anchor.

WHEN a ship comes a-ground, that is liable to take a great heald and may strain as the tide leaves her, the topmast should be struck that they may come easily down while she continues upright, and she should be eased from all tophamper, or it should be laid as low down as possible, and when she begins to take her heald, the main and fore yards may be used for shores,
The lower yards may be used as shores on occasion.

being lashed to the chain plates, scoppers, &c. by which not only their weight is taken off the ship, but they may support her from straining, and when necessity requires it, the spare booms may be used for shores, and to lash iron crows with the sharp end below the end of each shore, may be a means to keep the lower ends fast to the ground.

NOW we may suppose a ship got to sea clear of these dangers that required a Pilot, who has now left the ship to the management of the commander and proper officers. And when the course that is to be steered is ordered,
The compass and coursets be looked after.

the compasses should be examined to see that they traverse freely, and should be compared how they agree with each other, both in and out of the binacle. which should be cleared from all iron from about it, and if the commander should be otherwise engaged, a proper officer should be appointed to attend to the course steered, and to the soundings of the lead, if it is kept going, to avoid what I have known of late; and many other instances, of ships being run on shore by course, when the blame has been laid on the compass.

WHILST one officer takes the care of the ships course, &c. the other officers with the whole crew, according to their stations, should be properly employed, in clearing and preparing the ship to contend with the turbulent waves of the sea, to prevent and guard as much as possible,
Port and hatches to be secured.

against the bad and fatal consequences, which I have known to happen from shipping water before things have been properly secured, that the people may be properly refreshed with sleep, which nature demands, to enable them to do the duty as it ought to be done, as soon as things is got to rights to admit of it, the watch should be chose and set.

On choosing the WATCHES.

THE crew as far as they are known to be good and bad, should be equally divided, and they should be told by the commander, that the safety, ease, and success of the whole depends chiefly on every one doing or getting the necessary duty done, with watchfulness, care, and diligence, according to their different stations, which he is in duty bound strictly to look after, and treat each of them, as their merit, or demerit deserves.
Safety depends chiefly on the watch upon deck

The watch upon deck have upon them the important charge, not only of the safety of the ship and their own lives, but the lives of the other watch and all that are below, therefore any neglect of duty by the watch upon deck, and especially in keeping a good look out, should be resented by all the rest of the crew, the watch below should lie down with such cloaths on, as to be ready to turn out directly, when all hands are called, which may be to save the whole from immediate destruction. These declarations help greatly to reconcile the crew in general, to that strict discipline, which may be absolutely necessary to be established at the beginning of the voyage, and especially when passing through dangerous narrow seas.

THE commanding officer of the watch, in my opinion,
The officer on deck to use his judgment to avoid danger.

should not be put under that too common restriction, of being obliged to wait for the approbation and orders of his captain, when any unexpected great danger appears to be very near, but it should be recommended to him, to give such orders as in his judgment he may think the immediate necessity for safety require, to avoid the nearest danger, so as to give time, to call on the captain to direct what is best to be afterwards done.

On shaping a Course, and navigating thro' dangerous narrow Seas or Straits, where Tides or Currents run strong.

IN seas where shoals lie interspersed at a distance from the land, and where tides or currents run so strong as may greatly alter both the intended course and distance (which has to my knowledge occasioned many fatal losses) no pains should be spared in shaping the Course to calculate how the intended course and distance is to be made good,
The tides or currents to be noticed.

for it is well known that a strong tide or current has the same effect upon a ships way at sea, tho' it may not be so visible, as in a river where it is plain to be seen, for which reason the setting and strength of the tide or current, as near as can be got, should be reckoned in the calculation, and set down in the log book as a course and distance in keeping the ships way the same as the log, which ought to be hove and remarked every hour, and this is not too often, because in that time there may be great alterations in the ships way, as well as the tide.

FOR these reasons as well as on other important occasions, every prudent diligent officer, should endeavour to get all the helps he can come at from tide tables, books, charts &c, to make himself as well acquainted as possible with the tides, and should take all favourable opportunities to try and remark their ebbing and flowing, setting and strength of the tides as well as of the currents, that may be found in their track of navigation, in order to form a judgment how to allow and reckon them as a course and distance, in the account of the ships way, as above recommended, by this it will certainly help him to come much nearer the designed course and distance than if no notice was taken of them, but the velocity of the tide varies with its height, which will be mentioned from observations that cannot be ascertained by theory,
The uncertainty of practical navigation at sea.

and the many other unavoidable errors that occurs in practical Navigation, which makes it so uncertain, and differ so much from the theory that makes the ships reckoning answer to the greatest nicety upon paper, when in reality she is often sound at a great distance from what was expected

THEREFORE as so little dependance is to be put in reckoning the ships way or place, it should not be thought wonderful in the course of a long winters night, that instead of stearing clear, or falling in with a place as expected, the ship is often found in another place, or from being on one side of the channel, she is found unexpectedly on the other, which makes it absolutely necessary and especially in the night or thick weather to proceed with the utmost care and caution under such sail as the weather and situation will admit so as to make the ship easily managed,
Care and caution, and means used to avoid dangers when they appear.

a good look out being always properly kept, whenever it happens that real danger unexpectedly appears, let not perverse obstinancy take place so as to loose time in doubting and disputing, but immediately use the best means to avoid the danger.

THE anchors and cables should be kept as ready as possible on these occasions.
To find out your situation.

If the place you have fallen in with cannot be known by the appearance it makes, take the bearings and extending of it each way by the compass, the depth of water, &c. and compare them with the chart of the place, this is the readiest and most likely means to find where you are, which may be of the utmost consequence in proceeding forward or retreating by this fresh departure being right, for I have known many losses occasioned by taking one place for another.

On Turning to Windward in narrow Seas.

HOW far it may be right or wrong in bad weather, to keep beating against contrary winds in dangerous narrow seas, may be a disputed point, and it must be left to the discretion of the prudent and discerning officer, who will consider his risk, wear, and tear, with all the advantages or disadvantages, that may attend beating at sea, and that if obliged to bear away for a road stead, even there, the wear, and sometimes loss of the ground tackle must be considered, and also that the ship is liable to drive, or be drove on board of by other ships. So that when a ship can be kept at sea with any prudent degree of safety, though she cannot get, but may loose ground, yet the chance it gives of being in a fair way for a change of wind, and that by its varying but a little, it may give an opportunity of making slants to get round a point or head land, or through the narrow seas into the clear open ocean, by which bravery there has been many instances of ships making a voyage, and one did so to the West Indies and back again from Liverpool, whilst others were waiting there all that time for a fair wind.

BUT in a tide way, when the wind and weather, and the navigation is such, that admits a ship to stop tide, this gives so great an advantage to gain ground to windward, that it may be deemed wrong to lie waiting for a fair wind, for it may be said, that the ship not only gains all that the tide runs her to windward, but it makes her hold a better wind, to make her sail faster a-head, than she would do with the same breeze of wind in still water, consequently she makes less lee-way, so that in smooth water it may be reckoned that the ship gains about one third to windward of what she sails by the log, as mentioned page 44; this added to what the tide runs may gain a great way to windward in a tide's working. When a ship comes to an anchor at slack tide,
Remarks when stopping tide.

and the cable is veered out to ride by all the lee tide, then heaving the lead, and the log every hour after, till the next slack tide, will give a favourable opportunity to observe the setting and strength, or velocity of it, and what it ebbs or flows in every hour the whole tide, also the time of each slack tide, with the moon's age, and her distance from the earth if it can be got, all which deserve to be particularly remarked in the journal.

WHEN the wind happens to blow so that the ship will lie up aslant upon one tack, nearly to stem the lee tide, then the best management is to stand on the other tack, with the windward tide, as far as the situation will admit with safety, to get and keep to windward, that may give the opportunity to stand upon the slant tack the whole lee-tide, so as to loose little ground, and save the risk of stopping the lee-tide by coming to an anchor.

To sail in shore the first to the tide and off the latter part of it.

IT deserves to be noticed, that in narrow seas or wide channels, where the tides run strong, both flood and ebb, they begin first to run in shore, and run a great deal longer in the offing, therefore the advantage should be taken to stand as close in shore as safety will permit at the first making of the windward tide, and stand to the offing the latter part of it, by which management our coasting ships being well acquainted often beat through the King's channel against fresh contrary winds that keep other ships wind-bound.

On Taking a Departure from the Land.

NOW let it be supposed that a ship has got far enough to sea to take her departure from the land, and is going to be navigated in the open ocean. The departure should, if possible, be taken from some remarkable head land or place that has its latitude and longitude •ell laid down in your books and charts, and if it 〈◊〉 in a fair way for a land-fall homeward bound, the more pain; should be taken, to get an observation with all the quadrants on board well adjusted according to rule, and to examine how they agree with each other, and how they answer to the bearing and distance of the land of departure in sight as laid down, and a rough sketch of the appearance it makes should be taken, and also the soundings at the same time, if they are a guide to the coast, all which should be fully remarked in the journals, not only for the reckoning outwards, but for safety in making a good land-fall homeward, which depends much more on your own observations and remarks, than what can be found in any books or charts.

Difference between the Theory and Practice of Navigation.

AFTER the d•pa••• from the land is taken, then begins what we call the art of navigation, which by mathematical rules gives the true 〈◊〉 and distance from one place of port to another, only by their latitudes and longitudes being given, to reduce the various traverses a ship often makes in twenty-four hours into one course and distance, and find the latitude and longitude the ship is in by account every day at noon, which by theory can be made to answer to the greatest nicety, so that a learner at school, can keep a reckoning of a long run, and make the designed land-fall agree to a mile with his account of the ship's way, but in practice it is found from experience, that it cannot be done to be solely relied upon, even by seamen of the greatest capacites, whose chief de¦pendence, as before noticed, must be therefore on lead, latitude and a good look out.

THE difference between the Theory and Practice of navigation, arises from defects in the methods and instruments which we are in steering and in the measuring, and marking down the ship's way, and also in not making proper allowances for bad steering, lee way, ship's drift, or bearing away from the true course in squales, variation of the compass, and tides, or currents, all which cannot be brought exactly to a regular account, but are liable to errors, which depend much upon mens different judgments in correcting them: therefore each of these articles deserve to be particularly noticed, as they occasion not only the above difference, but the difference of one ship's reckoning to another on the same passage, and also one man's reckoning to another in the same ship.

On STEERING in General.

THE difference between good and bad steering is of such consequence to navigation, that it deserves particular regard, because good steering not only gives nearly the true course as steered by the compass, but the ship sails much faster and farther in the same time, and with much more case both to the helm's man and the ship in a gale of wind with turbulent waves, for whatever a ship goes from her straight course, the shortens her distance so much, and requires more helm, which works and makes both ship and helm's man very uneasy, and when carrying a pressing sail there is great danger of the ship being broached to, which may prove fatal to the whole: therefore all hints or helps, and every thing that good steering depends upon, should be made as easy and plain as possible, for the helm's man in a dark night, when he has nothing, but the compass to steer by, on the goodness of which he entirely depends, therefore this most noble instrument should be first spoken of.

On SHIPS Compasses.

WHERE there is so many lives, and so much property depending on good Compasses, I have been surprized and vexed to hear some people begrudge the price of Dr. Knight's improved steering and azimuth Compasses, which I thought, when I bought one of each, not only deserved the price, but the inventor the thanks of the public, as a trading nation and a maritime power for so great an improvement in that important instrument; the needle which governs the chard in this, is a strong artificial magnet of itself, and having an agit socket traverses upon a polished steel center pin, that the ship's head cannot move the least degree to one side or the other, but these compasses instantaneously shew the motion, by which much better and safer steerage may be made, than with our common campasses, which are made very slight and imperfect, with needles that contain very little magnetic power, and have only rough, soft, brass sockets and center pins, which soon blunts, and are liable to be out of order, so as to prevent the chard from traversing freely. A ship may move a great way from her course before it can be perceived by a bad compass, which may occasion dangerous steerage in spite of the best helm's man. Therefore the best of compasses should always be allowed, as the difference between good and bad will be but a little in the expence of a ship's out-fit.

On the STEERING WHEEL.

THE great advantages experienced from steering a ship with this excellent machine, has occasioned it to become more and more in use, even small ships that have their tillers upon deck, frequently now steer with a wheel, which gives the helmsman an additional power to command, and move the helm at pleasure from side to side whilst he stands firm on one spot, that he may keep his eyes fixed on any mark a-head, or on the compass, and observe to a great nicety the ship's motions or tendency to go from her course, so that she may be steered steadier, and confined nearer to her true course by the wheel, than by the tiller, which the helmsman must go along with from side to side as the ship requires, that he cannot discern her motions so nicely, nor has he equal power to move the helm as occasion requires.

AS the advantages of the wheel are so great, they deserve the more pains taken to have them made as perfect as possible, the barrel of the wheel should be exactly proportioned to the size of the ship, that either three or five turns of the wheel rope, may be just long enough so as to lose neither power nor time, in moving the helm three points of the compass each way from the direction of the keel, as mentioned in page 38. And as most of our wheels have eight spokes,
To have the spokes of the wheel marked.

(and some large ships have nine or ten) the handle part of each spoke should be marked, so as they may be distinctly known by feeling, as they pass through the helmsmans hands, the midship spoke where the wheel rope is nailed, marked with a rope yarn, as in common, and the three or four spokes on each side I, II, III or IIII notches cut with a knife, suppose on the foreside of the wheel, on the starboard side, and on the after side of the wheel on the larboard side, the half turn spoke if there is one to be plain without any mark, by which marks it may be readily known where, or how far the helm is on either side, tho' the tiller is below out of sight, this gives the helmsman, the liberty to use his eyes intirely in observing the ship's motions, to steer her to the greatest advantage.

On STEERING a COURSE.

IT is certainly the duty of the officer of the watch, to use his utmost endeavours, to get the ship steered as near the course that is ordered as possible and when the ship is perceived to be going exactly her course by the compass, the helmsman should be advised to look and find a mark a-head that will not alter fast to steer by, and only to look at the compass now and then, as occasion may require, to observe whether the mark alters so as to make it necessary to find out another that will answer nearer to the course; for it is well known that a learner will steer a ship to a greater nicety by a mark a-head, than a good helmsman can do without a mark by the compass.

Difference between good and bad Helmsmen.

A Good helmsman, when a ship is difficult to be steered, at taking the helm, he first observes how it lies, then looks with a sharp eye which way the ship is inclined to go from her course, and moves the helm with a brisk motion far enough to stop her that way, and feels by the stress upon the rudder ceasing, (which feel ought always to be noticed, as well as any alteration to the eye) when it is a proper time to ease the helm to prevent her from going on the other side of her course, for a ship is no sooner stopt by the helm from going to one hand, than she will be inclinable to go to the other hand, if the helm is let lie in that place, therefore he keeps moving the helm with a brisk motion, as far as is found necessary, to confine her to the course, and by feeling the marked spokes of the wheel, as they come into his hands, soon perceives how much helm, and how far she requires it each way, to command and steer her steadily along, with the least helm, and trouble to himself.

A BAD helmsman instead of endeavouring to confine the ship to her course, by moving the helm each way as above-mentioned, commonly lets the helm lie until he sees the ship is got on one side of her course, then moves it so far as to bring her to her course again before he offers to stop or meet her with it, and then she gets on the other side of her course, so as to require a great deal of helm both ways, by that the ship is steered but little right forward, but kept yawing about from one side of her course to the other, which shortens the distance gone, and makes both course and distance very uncertain, and works the bad helmsman as he works the ship from side to side, which makes both very uneasy, and if the waves run high, when carrying a pressing sail large, by bad steering there is great danger of broaching the ship to, therefore none but the best helmsmen should be permitted to steer at such times.

On Suiting a Ship with Sail that she may be well steered.

WHEN it is difficult to steer a ship, her officers should take care that her sails are kept properly trimmed, and that she is not over pressed with sail, and especially after sail, which may make her so ungovernable, as to put it out of the power of the best helmsman to steer her, with all the helm that can be given her, therefore the helmsman should always be told to acquaint the officer of the watch, when the ship gripes so hard, that the helm hard a weather, or hard over each way, will not command her, that the sails may be better trimmed, or after sail taken in, or more head sail set, as the occasion may require.

On Steering upon a Wind in the open Ocean.

IN a variable wind's way, when a ship has got sea room, clear of the land, I have thought it a wrong practice, to steer upon a wind, by the vanes, and sails just touching full, which seldom gives a direct course, but varies as the ship comes to, and falls off, which makes both course and distance the more uncertain; therefore a course should be ordered to a point, or half a point of the compass, as the wind will admit, to steer the ship with a full sail, and only look at the vanes to see if the wind alters, that the course may be altered accordingly, by this means, a truer course as well as distance, and more distance may be got, especially if the ship lies a slant towards her true course, which makes it the more necessary as the ship will sail the faster, and make less lee-way, and this last should be well considered, because the ship's real course by the compass, depends much upon making a proper allowance for her lee-way.

On making Allowance for LEE-WAY.

THIS, in a most inconsistent manner, is generally left for 24 hours, to the judgment and memories of the different navigators, who probably are below, asleep, or their attention taken up with other things great part of the time, this therefore must make the allowance for lee-way very uncertain, as it is liable to vary, and be more or less every hour, as the wind happens to vary, blow less or more, or the waves run higher or lower, more a-head or a-stern of the ship, and as she has been steered upon a wind, though under the same sail, and differs greatly from any school boys rules, that can be proposed of allowing more or less lee-way, according to the sail a ship can carry; for it is well known that two ships may be in company with equal sail set, when one, by her construction and trim, may not make half so much lee-way as the other.

THIS defective and uncertain manner of making allowance for lee-way, in my opinion is one of the principal causes and reasons that can be given, why the reckonings in the same ship should differ so much from each other, when the courses and distances that the ships way is reckoned from, are all taken from the same log-book, which, if no mistake be in the calculations, should make them all nearly agree.

WHAT in my opinion would contribute greatly to lessen this defective part of navigation, is to have a quarter of a circle of sheet lead, divided so as to make the eight points of the compass, nailed upon each quarter, with one side parallel to the keel, and the other to the beam, as they have in most capital ships, by which the ship's wake, or drift, that she goes to leeward of what she stems by the compass, may be set to a sufficient nicety upon both tacks by the officer of the watch, who should make the allowance, and set down the real course or drift, made by the compass every hour, which by this means will certainly come much nearer the true course, than when left without any rule, to different peoples memories, and judgment as abovementioned.

To have 4 quarter circles pointing to each quarter and bow.

HERE I think it proper to remark, as these quarter circles of lead, are commonly made and cut from a whole circle about six inches diameter, with the thirty two points of the compass scratched out in straight lines from the center, the other two quarters should be nailed on each side of the baracado, or fore part of the quarter deck, pointing on each bow before the beam, as those a-baft points a-baft the beam, so that any objects, such as ships, points of land, shoals, buoys, or beacons, may be readily set by these quarter circles, to know how far they are before, or a-baft the beam, and by observing how the ship stems by the compass at the same time, the bearing and alteration of bearings, may be easily and readily taken, which I can say from experience will often prove of great service.

On Measuring a Ship's Way at SEA.

THE many errors that are known to attend the Log has occasioned many laudable attempts, to bring in to practice more certain methods, to ascertain a ship's way through the water. The most promising methods that I have met with, were Smeaton's and Burdet's, sea way measurers, I had a trial of Smeaton's, in a voyage to Leghorn, which seemed to answer much better than the log, whilst the ship went less than six miles an hour, but when she exceeded that rate, the friction increased that hindered the first mover of the wheel work, turning round proportionally free as the ship went faster, which Mr. Smeaton said he could easily do, if he could find suitable encouragement. And Mr. Burdet's contrivance seems to me a further improvement, which I think deserves more trials and encouragement from those in power.

On Measuring a Ship's Way by the LOG.

THIS method, defective as it is, must be made the most off, till a better is brought into practice.

The Learned have, with much seeming reason, recommended to us to have our log-lines marked 50 feet to a knot, and the glass to measure 30 seconds of time, which are exactly 120th part of a geographical mile, and of an hour, and must be allowed to agree better with exact calculation than our common practice of having but 42 feet of line, to a glass of 28 seconds of time, which line is four feet eight inches, or about a ninth part short of the above proportions, yet in our practice this is found from long experience to measure very well a geographical or sea mile of 60 to a degree, which mile in my opinion should become general, and be used in the scale of all our sea maps, instead of our English statute mile, which is about a 7th part less, by which difference the unlearned may be deceived.

COMMON practice can only be proved to be right, by frequent fair trials, I was mate of a ship in the Jamaica trade from London, outward bound, and we marked the log-line seven fathom to a knot, to a 28 second glass as usual, till we were disappointed of seeing our expected land-fall according to our reckonings; our commander then asked how we had marked the log-line, he was answered seven fathom to a knot, he then ordered the line immediately to be new marked eight fathom to a knot, and said that the ship was one eighth part short of her longitude, by the line being marked seven fathoms instead of eight to a knot, and so it proved, for we made the land as he said. But in our passage home by this rule, we found the ship a great deal above an eighth part of the longitude a-head of all our reckonings, which nearly proved of fatal consequence, as we were carrying all the sail possible with a westerly gail of wind and hazy weather, when we luckily perceived by the colour of the water that we must be in soundings, and it proved so, and found ourselves far up the King's channel in a fair way, and we had escaped a great risk of running the ship on shore unexpectedly with all sails set. This convinced me that it was not the fault of the log-line being marked seven fathom, but another cause that may be mentioned hereafter, and that is known always to have this effect upon ships in their voyages to and from the West Indies, so as to make more difference of longitude out than they do home.

Proportions for the line and glass.

THE proportion of seven fathom of line, to a glass of 28 seconds being right, is confirmed by the general practice in the East India trade, as well as all other trades that I have been in, my opinion is, that it will stand the test of any fair trial. In a voyage to Leghorn, the ingenious Mr. Smeaton sent with me for trial his above-mentioned sea-way measurer, and some other now marine instruments, which made me take extraordinary pains to have our log kept nicely marked as above, and to be hove regularly every hour, in order to find out by experience how many turns of this way measurer answered to a mile; to fix this to a greater certainty I took an opportunity that then offered, and steered to the westward, till we could steer cross the bay of Biscay, and a•ong the coast of Portugal, as near upon the true meridian to the southward as possible, where we reckoned there was neither tide nor current to effect a ship's way, and had the favourable opportunity of fair wind and weather, to compare our distance run by the log to what was made by good observations for several days, and I sound that they nearly agreed, which I think makes it evident that these proportions for the log answer very well if properly attended to, and therefore cannot be the cause which occasions bad reckonings, and if it is an error, it must be allowed to be on the best and safest side, that the reckoning should be rather a-head than a-stern of the ship, to put people upon their guard in proper time, to prevent the fatal consequence that may attend an unexpected land-fall.

THE readiest and surest way to mark and try the log-line, is,
To mark the
••

ne and try the glass. to have the whole length of the half knot (21 feet) measured and marked straight along the deck, and to have the knots put into the line so as they may be easily shifted backwards or forwards, as the stretching and shrinking of the line often requires. But before this is done, the half minute glass should be tried, whether it runs exactly 28 seconds, that if it is found to run more or less, the line should be marked longer or shorter according to these porportions, as 28 gives 42, what will a second or two more or less give? and this may be done sufficiently near by the scale and compass. And the glasses may be tried by a musket ball fastened to a thread held steady in one hand between the finger and thumb exactly 29 inches from the ball, which must be swung by the other hand, and continued swinging more than thirty times, by which I have found from frequent experience each swing then measured a second of time sufficiently near for this purpose, even when the ship had some motion from the waves. But the best instrument for this purpose, as well as many other useful and curious purposes at sea, is a good watch, or time keeper, that shews seconds, which will answer equally well in a storm when the waves run high, as in smooth water, therefore every officer that has the charge of navigating a ship, should have one of the best he can afford to buy.

IT is a sufficient trial for the quarter minute glass, if it runs cut exactly twice, for the half minute glass once. But after all one's care in finding out exact proportions, by which to get the true distance run, the whole depends chiefly on those who heave the log, and hold the glass, neither of which should be done by careless people, especially when the ship sails so fast as to require to use the quarter minute glass which will double all errors, therefore this glass should be as seldom used as possible.

THE Learned as before mentioned, have very justly recommended to have the line that is run out above the knots, set down in ••∣thoms of 5 feet each, being the tenth part of their 50 feet knots. The same exact rule may be easily used, only by having a measure of four feet, two inches and a half, marked on the rail, on each quarter where the log is hove, that will measure tenths of a mile from our 42 feet knots, which must be allowed will come much nearer the true distance, and agree much better to the tenths of miles in the traverse tables, than that old and bad practice, of setting down nothing less than the half knots, or that more exact method of marking down to fathoms of six feet, and these tenths of a knot above or under the knot or half knot, might be very easily measured by the officer that heaves the log.

BUT after all the exactest rules, the most effectual method in my opinion to try what dependance can be put upon the log, and those that heave it, is that I have before mentioned, if opportunity permits, clear of tides or currents, after a good observation had for the latitude, that is, to allow for the variation and steer due north or south, till a second observation, if it can be done in a favourable time, which will give the truest real distance that can be got at Sea to compare with the Log.

On Heaving and Marking down the Log, only once in two Hours.

IT surprises me to find this old bad practice, still continued in many capital merchant ships, because it makes the unavoidable errors in getting the true course and distance, not only greater but doubles them in working the day's work, and marks down not nearer than half knots of the odd line, which must still increase the errors of the distance, for if we suppose two fathom of odd line is omitted to be set down every time the log is hove, this makes a difference of near seven miles in the 24 hours.

THIS practice lies under another great disadvantage, which is that of not affording sufficient room to set down and explain the necessary remarks and occurrences, that often happen in the twenty-four hours.

On Heaving and Marking down the Log every Hour.

THIS practice, compared with that above, has many advantages attending it, those unavoidable errors arising from the wind and weather varying, and the ship sailing faster or slower than when the log is hove, must be lessened one half, and the odd line that is run out, marked down in fathoms, or tenths of a knot, every hour must certainly come much nearer the true course and distance than the above old method.

BUT it must be allowed, that they who have been accustomed to the old method, may be a little perplexed in working the day's work, and reckoning those odd fathoms, or tenths of a knot, that is left over above the miles the ship has gone on any one course, and which is under no fixed rule, but when they amount to above half a knot let them allow a mile, and when under half a knot omit them, as fractions to be left, as many other material things must be, to the judgment and industry of the navigator, on which depends chiefly all comparative good reckonings.

AS to the difference of trouble in this method, it should not be mentioned, if it is allowed to contribute to lessen the defects of Navigation, which it certainly does, and therefore should become general. I will then take the liberty to shew in a day's work my manner of keeping a ship's way at sea, which I learned first in the East India Trade, so that they who have been used to the other method, may compare and judge for themselves.

Ship LIVERPOOL, through St. George's Channel, 1773.

Remarks.

H.

K.

F.

Course.

Wind.

Monday, March 6.

A fresh breeze, hazy with small rain.

1

5

—

S. S. W.

N E.b.N.

The first part a steady fresh breeze, and hazy with small rain, the latter part a strong gail with high waves, and thick rainy weather, at 2 A. M. H. M. sail, at 8 A. M. steared to the W. ward to keep clear of Scilly islands, at 10 lowered the T. Sails down on the caps, other remarks as per margin.

2

3

3

—

—

3

3

4

—

—

4

3

4

—

—

5

4

2

—

—

Cloudy & thick with small rain

6

5

3

S. bW ½ W.

—

7

5

5

—

N. E.

8

4

5

—

—

9

5

—

—

—

10

6

4

—

—

11

6

3

—

—

In 1st and 2d R.T. Sls. & Hd. Mizen T. Sl. A strong gale Hd. M. Sail, a great sea and small rain.

12

7

4

—

—

Course with the bearings from the hill of Hoath yesterday S. 15d. W. dist. 176 miles, S. ing 170 miles W ing 45 miles.

1

8

3

—

—

2

8

—

S. W.

—

3

8

—

—

—

4

8

—

—

—

5

8

5

—

—

6

9

—

—

—

Latitude by account 50 22 N.

7

9

1

—

—

8

9

2

S.W.b.W.

—

Mer. Dist. 0 45 West.

lowered T. Sail on the caps.

9

9

4

W.

—

Long. in 7 42 West.

10

9

4

—

—

11

9

4

—

—

12

9

—

—

—

Distance run 167 ½ miles.

The next Day at Noon

- Course allowed S. 28d. W. dist. 110 miles. S. ing 97 miles W. ing 52

- Latitude observ'd, 48 45 N.

- By Account, 48 30 N.

- Meridian Dist. 1 37 W.

- Longitude in 9 1 W.

BY this method the remarks of each watch may be briefly set down in the margin, so that all that is most material may be fully described at filling up the log book, or Journal for the day, only leaving room at bottom for the ship's course and distance, and the latitude and longitude she is reckoned to be in at noon, which will prove much better for many reasons than that method of seting down the difference of longitude, to avoid exposing how much the longitude reckoned to be in may be wrong, which by the by can be no disgrace to a man when he does his best. It is likewise necessary to draw the track of each day from one latitude and longitude to the other with a black lead pencil, on the general chart, to compare the ship's situation with the nearest land, or shoals, to prevent as much as possible being surprised by unexpected dangers.

On a Ship when in the open Ocean.

AFTER a good look out, as mentioned in page 82, the principal dangers now to contend with, are violent winds, and waves, for which the ship should be prepared, and every thing secured and made as snug as possible, according to the weather that may be expected, and as the length of the run may require, the cables may be unbent, the hause holes plugged up, if they lie low, and the bower anchors stowed somewhere within board, which is not only a great ease to a ship, but may make her sail faster, as mentioned in page 25, and may prevent the foot of the foresail from chafing against the upper arms of the stocks, and the lower arms from plunging in the water, which may affect both the ship's way and the steerage. All top-hamper that is now unnecessary aloft should be got down and stowed below, such as top ropes, top blocks, mauls, runners and tackles, that can be spared, which may ease the masts, and prevent a great deal of chafing amongst the rigging.

On turning to Windward in the open Ocean.

IN variable winds, when a ship will sail a-slant stemming near her intended course, it is natural to stand upon that tack as long as circumstances will admit, because the wind may vary to make a slant on the other tack, by which a ship may be got slanting forward on her way, then it may be worth while to carry a pressing sail if it blows fresh, and steer by the compass a little from the wind, as recommended in page 107, which may contribute greatly to shorten a passage.

BUT when the wind blows strong, and the waves run high, near to the point of the intended course, that nothing of a slant can be made on either tack, then it may be deemed very wrong, to press and strain a ship, with any more sail than to make her rise and fall easy with the waves, for a little time with a favourable wind, will fetch up what may be lost by taking in sail in good time, to give ease to the ship, masts, and rigging &c.

On taking in Sails to save them, and give Ease to a Ship sailing upon a Wind in a Storm.

ON these occasions, the climate, season of the year, frequency of the wind blowing strong in one quarter, and the appearance of the good or bad weather that may be then expected, with all other circumstances of the ship, men and materials should be considered, to form a Judgment how to act when it comes to blow so fresh that the topsails cannot be carried without being •eesed; and then if the top-gallant yards are up, whether it may not be necessary to get them down, and strike the top-gallant masts, if they go a-baft the top-masts, as mentioned in page 18, and especially if it is at the beginning of a long winter's night, in which time both wind and waves may be increased to a violent degree before morning, and which may make the ship pitch, roll, and labour, so as greatly to strain every thing, and make it dangerous for the people to got them down at such times, and if the wind and weather should prove favourable, they may be easily got up again in the morning, and by this practice at the first of the voyage in smooth water, the people will learn to be expert in getting them down or up as occasion may require.

AS the wind and waves increase, a fast sailing ship upon a wind, when pressed with sail (especially head sail) will be plunged deep into the sea, so as to increase her pitching motion to a dangerous degree, this I have experienced in chasing upon a wind, when both the pumps, and bailling at three hatchways could not keep the ship free from water, till the chase bore away before the wind, by which movement she soon became our prize, for we could not have chased her much longer upon a wind, owing to the sharpness and weakness of our ship's bows, as mentioned in page thirteen.

LET us now suppose a ship brought to her close reefed topsails, the top gallant yards and masts down, and every thing made snug according to the appearance of such wind and weather as may be expected. I have been at getting the spritsail yard and jib boom in upon deck to beat against westerly storms, and it is certainly a help, and gives great ease to a ship on such occasions. Let us also suppose the gale to encrease, so that the topsails must be taken in, in doing of which they are very liable to be split and blown to pieces, if proper management is not used to preserve them.

On taking in Topsails upon a Wind when it blows strong.

THE best method is, first to station the people to advantage, according to their strength and the dependence that may be put on them; man well and haul tight the lee clew and bunt lines, then let go the bowline and lee brace, man the weather brace, and when all is ready, let fly the leesheet, and brace the sail a-back to the weather shrouds whilst clewing up, which will keep it quiet from flapping till it is handed.

On taking in the Courses upon a Wind in a Storm.

WHEN the mainsail or foresail is to be either reefed or handed, it is certainly the best method for the safety and ease of the men, the sail and the ship, first to lower down the yard, keeping it level with the lee lift, to prevent the lee yard-arm from plunging into the sea, and if but weakly mann'd haul up the weather clew garnet first with the sail full, then station the people to the best advantage, as abovementioned, let go the weather bow-line and lee brace, that as soon as the lee sheet is let fly the sail may be braced a-back to keep it from flapping, that it may be hauled up with safety at more leasure, and the yard being down must contribute greatly to prevent those fatal accidents that have often happened from a weight of men reefing or handing these sails with the yards aloft, when the ship may be labouring with such violent and quick motions, that it may be difficult for men to hold themselves fast. And the yard being down, gives equal advantage in setting the sails again after being reefed, &c. for the tacks may be safer and easier got down, and the sheets hauled close aft, and the yards swayed up afterwards.

On Brailing up the Mizen.

EVEN this requires management at times, when the only method to still the sail, and prevent its flapping, that it may be furl'd easily, is to man well and haul upon the lee brails only, and only take in the slack of the weather brails till the lee ones are •lose up. For if the weather brails are too much haul'd upon it will till the sail so full of wind, as to prevent its being furled.

On taking in the Fore, Main, or Mizen Stay-sails.

THESE only require to be hauled briskly down, that they may be •uried or stowed away.

On taking in the Topsails, Mainsail, or Foresail, when sailing large or before the Wind in a Storm.

WHEN the wind is on either quarter, the lee sheet should be first clewed up, then the yard pointed to the wind, and the bunt-lines, &c. •ed as much as possible before the weather-sheet is let go, if the sail cannot be backed, the wind blowing nearly along the yard will preserve the sail greatly from flapping, so as it would do if the yard is let lie square to the wind.

WHEN the wind is right aft, one sheet should be clewed up first, then with the brace on the other side, the yard should be braced as sharp up as possible, haul up the bunt and leach lines as much as they can be, before the other sheet is let go, and if to save the sail it be required, and things will admit, that the ship could be steered with the yard pointing to the wind for a little while, it may contribute greatly to save and get the sail secured.

BUT on all such occasions as these, and especially in the night, when the word of command cannot be heard, nor can the people see, or be seen by their officers, so as to be directed by any means, to get the duty done as it ought to be, the only method is to muster the people altogether first, and make known what, and how the thing is intended to be done, and station them accordingly, that none may plead ignorance in excuse for any mismanagement that may happen.

On taking in the Foresail at the Time of Waring.

WHEN a ship will not bear to carry her courses, it is certainly the best practice first to secure and hand the mainsail, as the foresail may be carried a great deal longer, and with the mizen, main, and stay-sails, a ship may be steered close to the wind, so as to make her tolerably easy and lively in the sea, and especially when beating to windward in narrow seas, these are the most suitable sails a ship can be under at such times, because she may be the easier and readier wared, and when the storm increases, that the ship will not bear to carry the foresail, it may be taken in with great advantage in the time of waring by the abovementioned rules. After the people are got together, and the intended method of proceeding made known to them all, as soon as the ship is perceived to begin to ware, the yard being kept braced sharp up, the tack and bowl•e may be let go, and the weather-clew garnet hauled up, and when the ship is near before the wind, the bunt and leach lines, and the other clew garnet, may be hauled up, and if th• situation admits, and the occasion requires it, the ship may be 〈◊〉 with the wind on the quarter till the sail is secured.

On laying a Ship to in a Storm.

THIS is intended as much as possible, to preserve a ship from the dangerous effects of violent wind and waves, by endeavouring to steady her from labouring, and make her rise and fall with the waves as lively, and easy in the sea as possible; and the best method for doing this, I can recommend from long experience, is for the ship to be under her lower-staysails, with the mizen reefed, and ballanced, &c. and the yards braced full, as represented, in plate 6, fig. 2. and not by the common method of laying a ship to, under a reefed or a whole mainsail, with the foresail a-back in the brails, as represented in figure 1 of the same plate.

On lying to under a Mainsail with the Foresail a-back in the Brails.

THAT this method is far from being the best to answer the abovementioned purposes, may be proved from reason as well as experience, for a ship laid to in this manner, with some sails full and some a-back, and the helm made fast a-lee as customary, instead of keeping her bow to the wind and waves, which only can keep her easy in the sea, she will be constantly coming to the wind, so as to shake the weather leach of the mainsail by her head-way, the foresail being a back, and the power of the waves so much a-head, soon give the ship great stern-way, and the helm being a-lee as beforementioned, makes her fall round off four or five points from the wind, which causes the ship to labour and strain in proportion as she comes to, and falls off from the wind, and also exposes those flat and weakest parts, the counter, stern, quarter, and broadside, to bear the shock of a violent and dangerous sea, that sometimes breaks in and does great damage, and the mainsail is often split at such times, as well as by the power of the wind; and the quickness of the ship's rolling motion, from the ascending to the d•scending side of a high wave, acts with more or less force in proportion to the bigness of the sails to split them.

FACTS from experience are the only confirmation of a practice being right or wrong. I was in one of our East-India ships bound home late in the season, was five weeks beating round the Cape of Good Hope against westerly storms, when to preserve and keep the ship from rolling too much, we often laid her to, under a whole mainsail, with the foresail a-back in the brails, as represented figure 1, plate the 6th, when the abovementioned bad custom split our mainsails faster than we could repair them, till we had none to bring to the yard, but were obliged to wait till they were mended and they split again in less time than was taken up in mending them; during which time we commonly laid to under the mizen, when for want of a little more sail to steady her amongst the waves, she became more exposed to those dangers abovementioned, labouring with a more quick jerking and deeper r•lling motion in the sea: and we found the want of the mainsail, which is the most material sail upon a wind, to take the advantage at such times, when the wind varied so as to make slants, by which only we got round the Cape, after the time that is said to be limited by the Company, to prevent damage to their ships and cargoes.

On a Ship under lower Stay-sails and Mizen in a Storm.

FOR the reasons now mentioned, after long experience, my practice has been (instead of laying the ship to in this manner) first to secure and hand the mainsail, and if the gale increased▪ I handed the foresail, reefed and ballanced the mizen, the mizen main, fore, and foretopmast stay-sails kept set, as we might have done with the abovementioned ship, or such another as is represented figure 2 in the same plate, were both methods may be seen, in order to make a fair comparison of the two from practicable facts.

On the Advantages of a Ship being kept under lower Stay-sails and Mizen, instead of lying to in a Storm.

FROM what has been said it may with justice be concluded, that a ship laid to with the helm a-lee, must be constantly coming to, and falling off from the wind, more or less, in proportion to her head and stern-way; so that when a ship is laid to, in a storm, a represented figure 1, plate the 6th, that the power of high waves are added to the wind, she must naturally run up too near the wind by her head-way, and then both wind and waves unite to give her stern-way, which makes her fall round off, and throws her stern up against the wind and waves, which then act very powerfully against those tender parts, till she gets head way again, and makes the ship uneasy, and labour some to a dangerous degree as abovementioned; to avoid which I strongly recommend to keep the ship under way, as it may be called, with the lower stay-sails, with the reefed and balanced mizen set, and the yards braced sharp full, as representen by figure 2, plate the 6th, which will certainly contribute greatly towards producing the following advantages:

BY this method a ship may be kept with so much head-way upon her, as to be under the command of the helm, to steer her nearly to a course, six points from the wind, which ought by all means to be endeavoured after, to keep her bow (that bold and strongest part) pointing to the waves, where they can do her the least damage, and makes the ship at the same time much easier and livelier in the sea, than being laid to as abovementioned. And these small sails are handy and strong compared with the mainsail, being commonly made of equally strong canvass, and proportionably less liable to be split, either by the wind or waves, and can be set, or taken in easily with safety, and stand so flat, and fairly divided from the bowsprit end to the stern, that tend greatly to steady the ship, as well as ease all the masts, yards, and rigging, from jerking and chafing in her rolling, and preserve the mainsail and foresail, the two most material sails that are to be depended upon, on some extraordinary occasion that may require their being set and carried upon a wind in bad weather.

FOR these reasons, where ships do not wear and use a main and fore staysail in common, I would recommend to have them as ready to be b•nt and set as possible on these occasions, having hanks upon the stays, and gro••• upon the sails for this purpose.

On bearing away in a Storm, to scud before the Wind and Waves.

WHEN the waves run high, and sudden necessity requires to bear away, it should be considered that the low headsails which the ship may be wared under, when she comes before the wind, may be becalmed by the height of the waves, which may break violently against the stern, and fill the deck with water, but that loftier sails being set would give the ship more way through the water.

I HAD an instance of this in a cruising ship under low sails upon a wind in a storm, when the ship and all things forward gave way so much, that obliged us to bear away before the wind, and the low sails we had wared under were becalmed by the height of the waves when the ship was in the hollow part of the sea, they came running against the stern with great violence and filled the deck with water, which frightend the people so, that several of them called out with tears in their eyes that the ship would founder: we got the close reefed maintopsail set, which had the designed good effect to catch the wind, and always kept drawing full above the waves; this increased the ship's way so much, that the waves did not reach her with above half the velocity and power as before, and gave the ship time to rise and fall gently with them without shipping much water, for the waves I suppose might run at the rate of about 20 miles an hour, the wind going at about 50, and the ship above 10 miles by the log, which naturally lessened the power and violence of the waves above one half upon the ship; this proves the advantage, and even the necessity there is for having a close reefed maintopsail ready to set when going to scud before high waves.

On Sailing Large or before the Wind in Squall•.

PRoceeding in squally weather must be left to the judgment and prudence of the officer that has the command, to act as the circumstance and the situation of the ship and crow will admit, to run more or less risk in carrying more or less sail accordingly. But this I can say from experience, that it is not sufficient that a ship can be got before the wind at the time of a heavy squall with a great deal of sail set, which may endanger not only the masts and sails, but the ship may be so over pressed with sail as to put it out of the power of the helm and the best helmsman to steer her from broaching to, which may prove fatal to the whole.

WHERE rules cannot be fixed, the result of facts from experience must be our only guide. I was in a ship in the Jamaica trade from London, where our commander would not permit any sail to be shortened or taken in, without his order or consent, when carrying a pressing sail large with a westerly gale, at the coming on of a squall of wind he was called upon, and when he came upon deck he took the command and cunned the helmsman to endeavour to keep and steer the ship right before the wind without being obliged to shorten sail, but the ship was so overpressed with sail as to lose the command of the helm to steer her, which almost proved fatal to us all.

ALL unnecessary dating risks of every kind, when there is no pressing occasion to require such, should be avoided and condemned as the greatest folly, for there can be but little lost, and a great deal may be saved, by lowering or taking in sail in good time, when a ship is sailing large or before the wind in the time of a squall, as sails may be soon and easily set again when the squall is over, which may be the means to prevent great loss or damage.

AMONG many instances of this kind that I have known I met with one, by the foolhardiness of a London pilot, who would not let our sails be lowered, when sailing before the wind in a squall, which made the masts bend so much, that when we wanted to clew down the topgallant sails and topsails, we could not get them down, which shews the necessity there is of clewing these sails down, and securing them down from flying up again before a squall comes on, for had this squall proved any stronger, or continued any longer, we must have lost our masts, in spite of our utmost endeavours.

THIS shews the folly of running such imprudent risks, when little or no advantage can be gained by it, for it may be a disputed point whether a ship sails any faster for being thus overpressed with sail to such a dangerous degree, when sailing large or before the wind. But a ship sailing upon a wind in squally weather, may often be under a necessity to carry a pressing sail, yet then it should be considered, that if the topsails, &c. are not clewed down in good time, that the heeling of the ship added to the bending of the masts, may hinder the topsails, &c. from being got down in the time of a squall, which may prove of bad consequence.

On scudding or sailing before the Wind in a Storm.

MANY precautions are necessary on this occasion, every thing abaft, and about the mizen mast, should be taken in, and stowed away as snug as possible; and I have known the mizen gaff lowered close down on the occasion.

If the waves run high, it may be absolutely necessary for the reasons given, to have a close-reefed maintopsail set, though only scudding before the wind for the ease of the ship.

But when carrying a pressing sail to make the most of a storm, great care should be taken that suitable sails are only set, and they should be trimmed to the best advantage, so that the ship may be kept under the command of the helm to steer her, which should be strictly noticed by the commanding officer of the watch;
To
〈◊〉

against broaching to. for it should be considered, that a ship at such times may be so overpressed and plunged so deep into the sea forward with sail, that instead of dividing the particles of water on each side in an easy manner to open a passage through it, the full pa•s of the bow, and other stops not designed to be in the water, drive a great body of water above its natural level before her bows, which may increase the resistance ahead to such a degree, that will rather decrease than increase the ship's head way, in proportion to this rise of water, and the stern being lifted up as much as the head is pressed down, the helm must then naturally lose so much of its power at the same time, so that when the wind may be going four times as fast as the ship, and the waves as fast again, it is not to be wondered at, that ships are sometimes broached to, against the power of the helm. The remarkable loss of the Sussex East-India ship homeward bound from China, first arose from her being broached to when sailing before the wind.

What has been said on this occasion, shews the necessity for much care and pains to be taken, both by the officer and helmsman, as before recommended, and none but the best helmsmen should be admitted to steer at such times; and whenever danger appears from one man's steering others should be tried, and the sails altered and trimmed to the best advantage, that if possible the ship may be steered without the danger of being broached to. A great risk attends relieving the helmsman,
On reliev¦ing the helmsman

especially in the night, when he that is to take the helm, often comes but half awake from sleep, and takes the helm without examining where it lies at the time, and how far the ship requires it each way to confine her to the course; thus not considering the danger he at first lets the ship get such a sheer, that his best endeavours cannot stop her from being broached to, or brought by the lee. To prevent which, the helmsman that is to be relieved if he has steered well, should not quit the helm before he has shewed and made known to him that is to relieve the particulars of her trim, how she may be best steered at that time.

It is well known that there is great difference in ships steering according to their built and trim, full built ships when deep loaded are often difficult to be steered when sailing large in a gale of wind. I have been told of some that could not be steered their intended course before the wind, but would broach to each way in spite of their utmost endeavours, but have been obliged to lie to with a fair wind, which has often been the case of an expert diligent officer of my acquaintance: therefore every hint that has the least reasonable appearance to remedy this evil, deserves attention and should be tried.
Hints to prevent broaching to.

On this occasion, when a ship cannot be steered right before the wind without broaching to, suppose a trial should be made to steer her with the wind two or three points, first on one quarter, then upon the other, for a little time each way, this reduces the danger to only being liable of broaching to one way, that is to windward, which may be much easier guarded against by the weather helm this one way than both; and to suppose the ship to be steered with the wind on the larboard quarter, with the close-reefed maintopsail set and braced up with the larboard braces, and the head sail trimmed sharp the other way, with the starboard braces and the helm a weather, as represented in the plane of the ship, fig. 1. plate 7. which evidently tends greatly to counteract and get the better of those causes before-mentioned, which occasion a ship to broach to, and may keep her under the command of the helm. But if this method should not answer, there is another which I think could not fail of success; that is, to veer out and tow right over the stern, a towline, or hawser, or as much of a cable end, as may be found sufficient to keep the ship before the wind, and prevent her broaching to.

At such times as these,
To allow for bad stee
•

age. when a ship cannot be steered to the course that is ordered, it should be recommended to the officer of the watch to take particular notice which way she goes most from her course, to make an allowance and mark it down accordingly.

On cunning to the Helmsman.

THIS custom is useful in general, even when done by a quarter-master; it answers the good purpose to confine the thoughts and attention of the helmsman to his duty, as he is obliged to repeat the cun, tho' he with reason, as I have often done, moves the helm contrary to the cun, in order to confine the ship to her course, by such management as before mentioned, the good helmsman, after a little experience of the ship's trim, must be allowed to know best what helm is required to steer a direct course.

But when sailing is dangerous, by bad weather, squalls, high waves, or other dangers that may suddenly appear, then cunning becomes a matter of great importance, and the cun of the superior officer, or who he may appoint, should only be attended to, and answered briskly by the movement of the helm as well as by words, to avoid the danger, or to help to ease the ship to rise and fall gently with the waves, as it is well known much to ease a ship in her labouring motion, to luff her up with the helm a lee at the approach of a high steep wave when sailing close by the wind. But to suppose a ship at the same time sailing two points from the wind, it is disputed whether it is best that she should be luffed to, or should bear a way from a dangerous wave.

On Sailing and Cunning, with high Winds and Waves right upon the Beam.

THIS way of sailing, in my opinion, deserves particular notion, because it is more exposed to danger and damage than any other way of sailing; for a ship upon a wind, in high waves, is 〈…〉 accordingly, and with so little head way upon her that she may be luffed up to a dangerous wave, and by that made much ease. And when sailing large, a ship runs from the wave and w•kens is force. A ship lying to and driving to leeward, yields and gives •ome way to a high wave when it strikes her, which may a little abate its bad effect; but when carrying a pressing sail with the wind upon the beam, which is common because counting it a fair wind, a fast sailing ship is reckoned then to sail faster through the water than any other way with the same wind, as she does not recede from the wind or waves, and makes little or no lee way,
On the danger of this way of sailing.

but this exposes a ship to all the violent effects of dangerous high steep waves, which may strike and break with their utmost velocity upon the broadside to windward, whilst the ship's great head way through the water makes the greatest resistance to prevent her from yielding or giving the least way to leeward, and those other causes mentioned pages 33 and 35, when a ship is lifted up broadside with so quick a motion, from the bottom to the top of a high steep mountainous wave, it is not to be wondered at, that the ship, men, or materials, may receive great damage at such times. And the greater the ship, and the more water she draws, the more liable she is to damage, smaller vessels give more way to the waves when s••uck. I have been in a small vessel, in company with a fifty-gun ship that had her mainsail split and other damage done by the waves breaking on board them, whilst we received none in the small vessel. At another time crossing the western ocean in a light merchant ship with our guns, which were six pounders, stowed down in the hold upon the ballast, for the ease of the ship when sailing this way, a stroke of a wave canted our ballast and guns from the weather to the lee side of the hold, and broke the stantions that supported the lower-deck beams: these and many other instances confirm my opinion of the great danger attending this way of sailing.

On cunning and steering a ship when sailing in this way,
On luffing up to, or bear away from a dangerous wave.

it may be disputed whether she should be luffed up to, or bear away from a dangerous wave approaching upon the beam. Reason as well as experience teaches us that the helm should be put hard a weather, to bring the approaching wave as far aft as possible, to lessen its force, by the ship's running forward and giving the mere way from it, rather than to luff up with the helm a-lee to meet it with so much fail and head-way upon the ship, that must increase the stroke of the wave, and may produce a violent and dangerous pitching motion. I had an instance of this when I was mate of a ship, and it was my watch upon deck, when sailing in this way, at the approach of a dangerous wave coming right upon the beam. I ordered the helm hard a weather, but my commander ordered the helm a-lee, which occasioned the wave to have the abovementioned bad effect, tho' we received no material damage, yet, in my opinion it would have been less hazardous to have bore away with the helm a-weather.

But to do justice on this occasion, it must be allowed that ships in general commonly carry a pressing sail in this way, and are apt to gripe and carry the helm nearly hard a-weather, to steer the intended course; so that without this is noticed and guarded against by the officer of the watch, by having only a suitable sail set, and properly trimmed, it may be out of the power of the helm when hard a-weather, to make the ship ware fast enough to avoid the bad effects of a dangerous wave when perceived to be coming upon the beam.

After all that can be said on this way of sailing,
To avoid the danger sail¦ing in this way.

when the waves run high, I look upon the danger so great, that it ought to be avoided as much as possible, and it may be commendable to alter the course so as to steer with the wind and waves, either a point before, or abaft the beam, or for a time each way, if the occasion required that nicety.

On carrying Sail against Head Waves.

GREAT caution is necessary on this occasion, to prevent the damage that may be done by it, sometimes even to pitching away the bowsptit, masts, &c. And as the waves in the open sea, do not immediately cease with the wind that raised them, but often continue to run the same way for a great while after the wind is changed, even to the opposite point of the compass, therefore when a sudden change of wind happens, care should be taken not to be too forward in setting or carrying sail, so as to give the ship too much head-way against the old waves before they are fallen, for it may pitch the bowsprit under water, which I have seen done to a dangerous degree. Sometimes head-waves will rise against and reach a ship a long time before the wind that raised them, which may make it equally dangerous to press the ship with too much sail against them.

On Loofing and Setting Sails.

IN loofing square sails when it blows fresh, it should be a constant rule to loose the lee-yard arm before the weather-yard arm, to prevent the danger that the people to leeward are often exposed to, of being thrown from the yard by the sail flying up over their heads. In setting the topsails or topgallant sails upon a wind, when it blows fresh, it is an approved method to haul home the lee shoot fi•st, and if the sail be kept shaking by the weather-brace, the weather sheet may be easily got home, but when sailing large, the weather sheet of these sails are most commonly hauled home first. In setting the mainsail and foresail, if the wind requires it, the tacks are hauled down first, but in box hauling, or waring, the sheets may be hauled nearly aft, whilst the sails shake with the wind upon the quarter, and the tacks may then be got down.

Now let us suppose a ship has proceeded so far in her passage, as to draw near to danger, or to make her design'd landfall.

On drawing near to Danger, or making a Landsail

ON these occasions, it should be considered before-hand, what it most depends upon, to keep clear of the danger, or to make a good landfall; if they have regular soundings to it at a great distance, then the lead may be the surest guide, but if it be steep to without soundings, then the latitude if it is known, and a good look out, with the ship properly prepared for it, as mentioned page 83, may contribute greatly towards safety.

When going to cross dangerous latitudes where projecting points of land or shoals may lie in the way, or in making small islands, such as Cape de Verd and Canary islands, it is certainly very wrong to run without much caution in the night, or in thick weather, with a erowd of sail, on presumption that the ship is far enough to the westward, to go clear of them, which has occasioned many fatal losses, being deceived by the constant easterly current that runs in this track, which in my opinion is the principal cause that ships so often make more longitude out than they do home, in West-India voyages, as before mentioned, page 110.

It is the latitude only when known by observation, and not the longitude that can be depended upon for the ships being near, or clear of danger. I was in an East-India ship outward bound, the captain of which rather than run the risk of crossing the latitude of one of the Cape de Verd islands in the night, tack'd ship and stood back to the northward under an easy sail till day light, when it plainly appeared that if we had continued our course to the southward, we must have run upon the island before day-light.

To make a good landfall, if the situation and circumstances of wind and weather permit, that a ship can sail with a leading wind true east, or west, to the place of the designed landfall, it is an approved method to get into that latitude in good time, and especially homeward bound from the Western ocean, and to endeavour by all possible means to get observations, to make proper allowance for the variation of the compass, leeway, bad steerage, currents, or tides, if known, to keep the ship as near as possible in this designed latitude. When got into the designed latitude, the uncertainty of the longitude makes the distance to be run as uncertain, therefore in the day and clear weather, all the sail that is possible with safety should be carried, but in the night or thick weather, if it is thought prudent to run, it should only be with such sails, as the officer and people on deck can look round them, and work the ship to avoid the danger in whatever manner it may appear.

Notwithstanding these rules and precautions in landfalls, I have experienced very narrow escapes, both in America, and on our own coast, where we are very liable to be deceived by the tides, and in cloudy weather, by taking one place for another. Among many instances, it was my case in a ship from Leghorn to London, when in a cloudy afternoon we fell in with, and just got a glimpse of the south side of St. Mary's Scilly island, which by our reckonings, and an account we had from an outer bound ship, we took it for, and concluded it to be the lizard point which we had seen. Therefore ordered, as I thought we might with confidence steer, a channel course for the night, but our mistaken situation, tho' in a fair line of direction with our channel course, occasioned the ebb tide that sets N. W. between Scilly and the lands end, to take the ship on the starboard bow, which sheered us insensibly into the bottom of Mount's Bay: about midnight we were surprised with broken water and land extending as far as we could see on our starboard bow, when carrying topgallant sails with a fresh gale quartering at S. W. and large swelling waves from the main ocean right into the bay.

The hurry we were in to exert our utmost endeavours at this critical moment may be judged from our dangerous situation; we had our small sails to take in, and our topsails to get down, before we could bring the ship by the wind to lay her head from the nearest breakers, and we had the main and foretopsails to close roof, and the topgallant yards, &c. to get down, when we had not room to stand above a quarter of an hour upon a tack clear of the breakers. This so alarmed some English passengers (and even one of them who had been brought up to sea) that they all assembled in the great cabin to prayers, which they thought was their only refuge for safety; but putting the ship in stays which she refused, and then wating her round,
On turning out of Mount's Bay, and our management in box hauling.

by box hauling, as represented in the two figures, plate the 7th, frightened them from prayer, and they all came upon deck thinking we were running the ship on shore. We thus managed her by box hauling, as soon as we perceived the ship ceased from coming about in stays, we hauled the fore sheet close aft again, trimmed the head-sails flat whilst the sails were shaking, and hauled about the main and main top sail the same as if the ship had stayed, hauled up the mizen and kept the helm hard a lee, as represented by figure 2 in the same plate, by which the ship getting great stern-way turned short round upon her heel, till she filled the main and main top sails the right way, we then shifted the helm hard a-weather, when the ship got head way with the sails trimm'd, as represented by figure 1, which brought her readily round, with little loss of ground, by these means in about twelve hours we turned to windward so far off the lee shore, as represented at figure 3, so as to weather the lizard, where, to prevent such dangers at this place as we narrowly escaped, they have since erected light houses, for which they have my thanks, and in my opinion deserve the thanks of the public. The like public thanks will be due to whoever may be instrumental in getting a distinguishable light or lights on Holyhead, to prevent as much as possible such fatal losses as have often happened in Carnarvon bay, occasioned principally by the ebb tide taking ships on the larboard bow, in St. George's channel, when steering from Tusker for Holyhead which sheers them insensibly into Carnarvon bay if the tide is not properly allowed for as beforementioned.

THAT a ship sailing against a tide or current,
Necessary cautions in strong tide channels.

which takes her on either bow, is the cause that alters her course, must be evident to every one who knows that when a ship is sailing with a leading wind in a narrow river or channel against a strong tide or current, it requires nice steerage right against the stream to keep her in a fair way, for if the stream is let to take her on the starboard bow, she will soon sheer upon the larboard shore, if on the larboard bow upon the starboard shore, &c. so that the same cause will have the same effect in all narrow seas, or channels in proportion to their breadth. Where the tide or current runs strong, it may be highly necessary in the night or thick weather, to endeavour to steer right against the stream whilst it runs against the ship, as circumstances may require, to keep the ship in mid channel, or in a fair way till day-light, or until the weather is so clear as to permit to see the danger at a sufficient distance to run a-cross the stream boldly for the land to know the ship's real situation, which may be a means to avoid such dangers as abovementioned, and to proceed forward with more safety. Proceeding in this cautious manner, is especially necessary in St. George's channel, where the tides run so strong, that when a ship happens to enter it, at the first part of either flood or ebb, if the land cannot be seen clear enough to make proper remarks, the tide may make vast alteration in the intended distance to be run,
Not to mistake the land.

as well as in the course, by which people's judgment is apt to be misled, and they take one place for another, which has occasioned great loss and damage to my knowledge.

THEREFORE after a night's run in St. George's channel, if the land you happen to fall in with appears dubious, to avoid any bad consequence that may attend a mistake, no pains should be spared to get a certain knowledge of it; at the clearing up of a fog, I have been obliged to send a boat on shore to enquire what land it was that we found ourselves so near to, and which surprized us afterwards to find it was a part of the Isle of Man, and we should not have known it without this trouble, such great alteration does the different state of the atmosphere sometimes make in the appearance of land.

Now let us suppose a ship arrived safe to where she is obliged to take in a pilot, if he is to be boarded from a sloop, schooner, or hoy rigged vessel, under sail at sea, in bad weather it may be dangerous, and is often attended with damage, if not properly managed, therefore it deserves notice.

On getting a Pilot on Board in bad Weather at Sea.

THIS is sometimes attended with so much danger, that the Pilot sloops belonging to Leverpool, rather than run the risk of boarding a ship from their own sloop, sometimes go no nearer to the ship than to have a small rope thrown to or veered a-stern to them, which they make fast about the pilot's body under his armpits, he then goes overboard into the sea when as near the ship as they dare venture, and he is hauled on board the ship by the rope.

IT is a bad and common practice, in many ships, when the pilot vessel has got near them, to lay the ship to, with the helm a-lee, and to let her drive with the main or fore-top-sail a-back, thinking they may be boarded by the pilot's vessel without danger. But no sensible pilot, that knows what would be the consequence, will offer to board at such time, whilst the ship lies to. But if an unexperienced pilot boards a ship upon the weather quarter, which seems much the best for the purpose, the ship then heelding to leeward, keeps the yards, masts and rigging clear from getting entangled. Yet it is well known from experience, that it is more difficult to board to windward than to leeward, and that a stroke by a wave from a small vessel against a large one, will do much more damage, than a stroke by a large vessel against a small one, because the large vessel resists and does not give way to the blow of the small one, which would yield and give way to a stroke from the large one, in proportion to the difference of their weight, for which reason a ship should always be boarded on the lee side, but to do it whilst she lies to is attended with too much danger to risk, when the ship has any motion from the waves, for the helm being a lee the ship may get sternway, and fall round off from the wind, whilst the pilot's vessel is boarding, which may occasion great damage, and for want of a stern rope I have known rowing boats, when boarding get athwart the hause and sink at such times.

THE best method for this purpose in my opinion is, when the pilot vessel is got near, but still far enough to windward; for the ship to sail right forward about a point from the wind, with the after-yards braced sharp up, the main yard a-back out of the way, and sail enough, especially stay sails, to keep good head way upon the ship, the more the better so that she has only a little less way than the pilot vessel, which may shoot up under the ship's lee quarter, where a stern rope, and one passed aft from forward should be ready and thrown them, by which they may tow and steer their vessel clear from damage under the lee quarter, sheltered by the ship from the waves, and may watch for a smooth sea, and sheer to the ship at pleasure to board the pilot, and sheer clear again with the least risk possible.

On PILOTS.

A Pilot's qualifications should as much as possible be every way equal to the dangers and difficulties that attend his navigation, and should know where the shoals extend to a great distance, and where the channels are narrow, intricate, and shallow, where and when exposed to dangerous waves, where life as well as property being at risk. None should be admitted to take upon them this important charge, but such as from experience and practice, can give a ready verbal account of the course and distance from one place to another, the flowing and setting of the tides, depth of water, land marks, buoys, beacons, lights, &c. And should not only be seaman enough to work and manage a ship to the best advantage in fine weather, but capable when in difficult situations to form a right judgment what is best to be done for safety, and what can reasonably be expected for the people and the ship to do on every occasion.

THE best and most dexterous pilots for working and managing ships in crowded, narrow, or dangerous channels are those at Tinmouth haven, who from much practice by having many large collier ships to pilot in and out, as mentioned page 93, are more expert than any other people that I have seen, and they take remarkable pains to get the ship steered to their mind, they look out sharp, and cun the helms-man loud and quick, and make him answer and move the helm as the occasion may require, to counteract as much as possible the motion of the waves that may make the ship deviate either way from her intended tract. And when they turn to windward into the harbour, they likewise observe with great attention, and cun quick to keep the ship fairly full and by the wind, with good way upon her, under the command of the helm to make her work the better, and when they come to, where there is not room to turn to windward they take care to lay her head the right way, brail up the courses and drive to windward with the tide, where they have only little more room than the ship's length.

BUT when or where a pilot is found defective in seamanship, or capacity to judge and act with skill and prudence, on difficult or dangerous occasions, it is certainly the duty of the commander and proper officers to be upon their guard, and not to give up their judgment and themselves implicitly to a pilot, of whose conduct they have no assurance, which has to my knowledge occasioned great damage and fatal losses.

THEREFORE when a pilot's capacity is not known, his behaviour in management and design of proceeding should be noticed, and treated with more or less confidence as his conduct seems to deserve, and when it plainly appears that his conduct cannot be depended upon, then self preservation, the first law of nature, makes it a case of necessity and point of duty for the commander to interfere with the pilot, and trust to his conduct no farther than is consistent with safety. And not to be afraid of that false common notion, that if a commander of a ship interferes in the pilot's duty, he makes himself answerable for the consequence to the ensurers, but it is quite otherwise, for the ensurers ensure the commander's conduct, therefore instead of being blamed by the ensurers, he certainly deserves their thanks for endeavouring to prevent loss or damage that is likely to be the consequence of a thoughtless blundering pilot that has fallen to his lot, which has been my case when we had a very narrow escape.

BUT pilots, like other ranks of men, must be allowed to have different capacities and dispositions, and according to their practice must be more or less capable of their duty, consequently among the many there must be a variety of good, bad, and indifferent, yet the respectable character of a pilot on the whole, entitles them to be treated with all the respect and encouragement their usefulness deserves, so that when a pilot proves deficient in his duty, and a better is not to be had, to make the most of him, it is certainly best to endeavour by all possible means to help and advise him with candour what may be thought best to be done according to circumstances, and if his spirits appear to fail him in a dangerous passage or situation, and no remedy lest but to go forward, he should then be cheered and encouraged to keep up his heart, and not to let fear nor intoxication with liquor, get the better of him, which may be of equal bad consequence

BUT the most danger is from those inconsiderate and unexperienced pilots, who think a ship may be managed and conducted with equal ease and safety among shoals, as their own small vessels to which they have been accustomed, therefore they think there is no occasion to wait for the tide, the day-light, or clear weather but to push forward at all hazard, though it may be such weather that no lights, marks, buoys, beacons, nor the dangerous shoals in the way can be seen, nor guarded against by a compass course, nor by the lead, at a sufficient distance to keep clear of them.

I HAD the experience of a pilot of this sort, who wanted to run in the night amongst the shoals, when nothing could be seen for a guide to keep clear of them, therefore I opposed him till day-light, when it blew fresh right upon the shore, with drizzling hazy weather that we could not see a mile before us, he pressed me very hard to bear away and set sail, I reasoned with him of the danger, and would not consent till we had a consultation of the officers, when he was told of the great risk there was in running upon a lee shore in such bad weather, that if we fell in at any great distance from a fair way, he was to consider that the ship was not to be worked and managed in little room among shoals, like the small vessel we had taken him from, &c. he answered that the greatest danger was from our not running to get into safety when we might, and that his life was as dear to him, having a family depending upon it, as any of ours could be to us, and that if he could but see any part of the land, or even the breakers he could steer in by them, to get into safety.

BY the pilot's persuasion we bore away for our port, but with all the necessary precaution possible, to guard against the apprehended dangers above-mentioned; we run before the wind under close reefed main and foretop sails, thinking we should be obliged to carry them by the wind, if occasion required to make the ship work, or to keep clear of the lee shore, the lower sails in the brails ready to set on either tack by the wind, the anchors and cables all clear, all hands at their stations looking sharp out, and the deep sea lead going; in 15 fathom water, we saw land and shoal broken water near a-head, which was shewn to the pilot, asking him which way we should go now, he pointed from the danger we were nearest to, but looking the way he pointed, nothing could be seen but broken raging waves, we asked him what was then to be done, being in five fathom water, I perceived he was overcome with fear, and had nothing to say, but left us to save ourselves as we could; we then brought the ship round to by the wind, and notwithstanding we were well mann'd, was obliged to get the main and fore sheets aft with the tacks, not above two thirds down, by which, under Providence, and the ship's fast sailing, we but just cleared the breakers on the lee-shore, which would by all appearance have proved our total destruction, if the ship had been left to the conduct of the pilot, who after this, as it is common with all such unthinking men, went from a rash confidence to such extreme fearfulness, that he thought we could not possibly get far enough from the danger we had so narrowly escaped; when the weather cleared up with a sudden change, and a gail of wind right off shore, that put us under reefed courses, we could but just see the land from the mast head.

THIS pilot's conduct, and the many instances of damage, and fatal losses, that have been occasioned by rash, imprudent, and defective pilots, prove the necessity that a commander may be often under to interfere with the pilot, but it should always be done in a calm friendly manner to advise or assist him in whatever he may seem deficient, for it is but natural to suppose that a commander should know the trim and properties of his ship from experience, and what dependence may be put on her for sailing, steering, staying, waring, or to ride at an anchor, and how they can work and manage her on extraordinary occasions, in narrow and dangerous channels, and should form a better judgment what the ship and crew can do, than a strange pilot who may be a brave man, and know his way very well, yet, for want of experience, may be much inferior to the commander in working and managing the ship, and when this is the case, it should be agreed for the pilot to shew the way and point out the dangers, whilst the commander works and manages the ship to keep clear of them, which in my opinion may often contribute greatly to prevent misfortunes. But when pilots are known to be thoroughly qualified to work and manage a ship as their navigation requires, then the commander has only to see that the pilot's orders are obeyed.

BUT when ships are going for shoal flats, bar or tide harbour, where safety depends upon the height and time of tide which makes all hints or remarks from observations on the tides deserve notice, therefore, sailor like, I venture to give some observations upon them.

On the TIDES.

THE tides, and the knowledge of them, are of such great and important advantages to our navigation, and especially among our many shoals, flatts, bar and tide harbours, where it depends entirely upon the certainty of the flow and time of the tide to proceed with safety. Therefore our utmost endeavours should be used to get the greatest knowledge of the tides that is possible in all our tide and bar harbours that lie near the sea, by observing and remarking the time, and how much they flow on an average, not only at full and change, but at the quarters of the moon, which is the time that the tides are at their greatest deviation, from the mean and common way of reckoning them, which, if it was made public, might contribute greatly to come at a more perfect theory of the tides, as well as prevent the loss and damage that may be occasioned by ships running for our shoal water harbours at a wrong time of tide, being deceived by the old common method of reckoning the tides, which is very erroneous, especially at the quarters of the moon, and marking the time of flowing at full and change always to a point of the compass, adds to the uncertainty of a ship from sea to find the time of high water, which from experience I can say has occasioned great loss and damage.
Damage done by running at a wrong time of tide.

I was in a West India ship running for a bar harbour in Ireland by this erroneous rule, when we beat off our gripe, rudder, and a great deal of the stern post, and after part of the keel upon the bar, and had seven feet water in the hold when we got into the harbour, and was obliged to run on shore to prevent sinking. At Leverpool I have observed ships coming in at neap tides about the quarters of the moon, when instead of meeting with high water, as expected by the common way of reckoning, they have found it about a quarter ebb, that for want of water enough they have often struck or come a-ground and laid upon the bar, when loss or great damage has often been the consequence.

FOR these reasons, and being requested by my friend Mr. Ferguson, the astronomer, who with great labour and pains furnished me with large schemes, tables, plans, &c. relating to the tides in the year 1764, when I began, and have continued to make observations on the time and height of the tides flowing at the old dock gates in Leverpool, which is about three miles from the mouth of the river, that is so broad and extensive, that as a branch of the sea no land floods or freshes has any effect on the tides in the river opposite to the town, where the least flow of water that I have observed in neap tides, was nine feet at the dock gates when low water was just even with the sill of the gates, from whence is marks in the stone work upward to twenty-two feet and a half, from which the heights of the tides are taken, but having no marks below the sill of the gates towards the river, where from observations made on the whole rise of some tides, I have reason to conclude in moderate weather, that in proportion as the tides commonly rise above the nine feet mark at the gates, they fall the same below the sill of the gates, and that the four feet and a half mark is near the half flood mark let the rise be what it will, though it does not agree with half the time of flowing nor ebbing of the tides.

BUT to observe more exactly the whole rise of one of our middling tides, I had a board fixed upright at low water in the river, marked with six inch marks each foot, high enough to observe by,
A middling tide nicely ob¦served.

till the tide reached the dock gates, and remarked the time it flowed to each foot the rise of the whole tide, which was twenty-two feet and an half, from seven feet below the dock gates to the fifteen feet and an half mark at the gates in five hours fifty minutes, the first half tide rose in two hours forty minutes, but the next to high water was three hours ten minutes, so that the first half tide rose in fifteen minutes less time than the last, and it fell again to the half flood mark about fifteen minutes less time than it was in rising. But the slack tide at low and high water must be allowed to account for part of these irregularities, it ebbed the tide before, as I judge it does most commonly in moderate weather six hours thirty minutes, added to the flood five hours fifty minutes, makes twelve hours twenty minutes, the twenty minutes difference in time between these two high waters, agree with a tide table that is calculated and published here yearly by Messrs. Holdens, the benefit of which to be mentioned hereafter.

I HAD the above tide drawn into a scheme,
Si
••

e of the wave of the tide dividing the feet as the water rose and fell by the minutes of time, the wave of the tide, as it may be called, formed a curve near the parabolic, or the range of a bomb shell, only spread out at the bottom, as the first and last half foot in flowing took about thirty minutes, varying by degrees faster and slower to half tide when it flowed the fastest a foot in about ten minutes of time.

THE old method of reckoning the tides by mean or equal difference of time, or the bearing of the moon by the compass,
The tides flowing compared with a tide clock.

from full to change has been found very defective. I had a tide clock made, that was planned by Mr. Ferguson, to shew the time of tide by this rule. I kept the clock going as near as I could to sol• time, and what proved very remarkable, that at the quarters of the moon, when it was really high water by the tide, the clock commonly shewed only three quarters flood, so that from the full and change to the quarters of the moon, the time of high water commonly lost near a quarter of a flood, or above an hour from regular time.

MANY laudable attempts have been made to fix easy rules to agree with these deviations above-mentioned, which 〈◊〉 be allowed a great improvement in reckoning the tides, yet I have learned from experience and observation, that to come near the truth nothing less than calculating the attractive powers of the moon and sun,
Tides higher and lower in proportion to the moon's distance.

according to their distance and situation from us, which makes a great difference, and brings on both spring and neap tides sooner or later, and alters their height as well as the time of high water. Even at full and change of the moon (the only stated time) they will vary fifteen minutes, though all proper allowances may be made of two minutes of time for every hour the full or change happens to differ from the stated time of high water.

As we move round the sun, and the moon round us in eleptical orbits, and the moon's motion is faster or slower as she is nearer or farther from us, which is reckoned to be about 34,000 miles nearer to us when in her perigee, than when in her apogee, and thirteen days and a half in going from one to the other, that makes the high and low tides constantly vary accordingly, and which seems to me to make about a sixth part difference in the height of the tides from whatever they may flow in common, which I reckon about twenty-eight feet to be the whole flow of our common spring tides when we have about eighteen feet at the above-mentioned dock gates, but when the moon happens to be in her perigee at full or change, then we have about twenty-one feet at the gates, and when this happens at the quarters of the moon instead of 12 feet, as in common at neap tides, we have about fourteen feet at the gates. And when this happens at equal night spring tides, we have about twenty-two feet at the gates, and the neap tides low in proportion if the moon happens to be in her apogee. And what is very remarkable,
When the day and night tides run highest.

that from about the tenth of May to the tenth of November the night tides that flow from six in the evening to six in the morning run the highest; and from the tenth of November to about the tenth of May, the day tides run the highest, and this difference often amounts to eighteen inches.

Why the spring and neep tides come sooner or later.

WHEN the moon happens to be in her perigee at the quarters makes high neap tides as before observed, the spring tides following puts up early, and the highest tide is often on the full or change day, but when the moon happens to be in her apogee at the quarters, the following spring tides are late in putting up, and not at the height till the third or fourth day after the full or change, and all the other intermediate tides are influenced in the same manner, according to the moon's distance and situation, and as she is going farther from, or coming nearer to us in her orbit, all which deserves notice on many occasions, especially when it may be doubtful of a ship's havin water enough to answer her purpose.

THE times of the tides flowing,
The progressive difference of the time of the tide's flowing.

and the progressive difference of time between one high water and another are likewise obedient to the laws of the same powers. For when the moon happens to be in her apogee at the full or change, then her motion in her orbit is slowest, that for five or six tides afterwards the progressive difference of time between one tide and another is only about fifteen minutes, till they lose about an hour from equal time, then they alter nearly to equal progressive time of twenty-five minutes each tide to the quarters, when they flow about four o'clock, whether the quarters are long or short, almost as near a stated time as they flow about eleven o'clock at full and change, and after the quarters of the moon, the progressive time of flowing begins to increase often to forty-five minutes each tide, till they fetch up the lost hour, and comes up to equal time about six tides before the full or change, which six tides only agrees near with the above-mentioned tide clock, differing each tide about twenty-five minutes till the full or change, when they begin to make their deviations again as above described.

BUT the ingenious mathematicians Messrs. Richard and George Holdens, from observations here, and some from Bristol,
Tables for the time and height of the tide's flowing.

have formed a theory and an accurate method, whereby they calculate and publish yearly tide tables to shew not only the time, but the height of the tides flowing at Liverpool old dock gates, which I can say from experience agrees surprizingly near to observations. Therefore I take the liberty to give the principal part of the preface to the tide table for 1773.

THE PREFACE.

A 'Perfect theory of the tides, and an accurate method of calculating them, has been greatly wanted in every age since navigation was first practised; and, though industriously sought after, has hitherto baffled the researches of the most learned. And as their theory has hitherto remained defective, so their methods of calculation, founded thereupon, have succeeded no better; for, (as I am now furnished with about three thousand observations made upon the tides at Liverpool, and three hundred and sixty at Bristol, with which I can compare my own, and all other methods of calculation) I think I may venture to assert, that all the methods given us in books of navigation, and all the tide tables inserted in our almanacks,
Preface to the
•

ide •le. are very frequently subject to the error of an hour, and many times of much more; except that of Monsieur de la Caille, which yet is often liable to an error of forty minutes, as any person will find who takes the trouble of making a sufficient number of observations.

INDEED no person can expect that it should be otherwise, who considers that Monsieur de la Caille's, and all other Methods (except that of Monsieur Cassini, which in truth is no better depend entirely upon the moon's age, or her distance from the sun; without regarding the different distances of either the sun or moon from the earth, their declinations, the latitudes of places, or any thing else that affects the tides.

THUS deficient are all former methods in computing only the times of high water; as for the heights, the calculation thereof has never before been attempted by any one, that I know of; though they are, as I apprehend, equally necessary; for of what advantage can it be to the seaman, to know when the tide will be at the highest, if there will not be, at that time, depth of water sufficient for his purpose? Indeed it would be of no more service to know that there would be depth enough of water, unless he knew at the same time, when to expect it. But to know what height the tide will rise to, and at what time, must contribute greatly to his security: and is it not absolutely requisite, that a tide table should inform him of both these?

IF any person shall think proper to compare this table with his own observations, he ought always to set his watch right immediately before, by some good sun▪ dial; for these calculations are made according to solar time.

AND if the watch be thus truly regulated, I doubt not but that they will be sound to correspond very nea•ly with the observation, as this table is composed with the same care and exactness as the last, I having had the assistance of Mr. Bryan Waller through the whole work.

INDEED it cannot rationally be expected that any method of computation can perfectly agree with the tides, because they are subject to various alterations from the wind. Yet notwithstanding all the irregularities caused thereby, the heights given in the last tide table, have agreed with the observations (upon an average) within seven inches; and the times within five minutes.'

GEO. HOLDEN.

NOTWITHSTANDING gales of wind affect the tides,
Advantages of these tide tables.

I observe it is more in the height than in the time, that they are made to differ from these tide tables, and then an allowance may be judged according to the strength or velocity of the wind blowing for or against the course of the flood tide, which here comes from the south west quarter, which to suppose may increase the height of the tide above this theory, at the rate of about an inch for every mile of the wind's velocity, above a fresh breeze of about ten miles an hour; and decreases the height in proportion as the wind blows from the North East quarter.

SO that these tide tables must certainly be of great utility to all that are concerned in the time and height of the tides flowing, and from their height may judge of their velocity, which I reckon opposite to the town is at the rate of about a mile an hour for every fathom it flows up and down, and that is about two and a half at common neap, and about four and a half at common spring tides; and there is seven feet more water on the bar of the common channel, than at the old dock gates, so that by the tide table, it may be judged when a ship will have water enough to get into the river, and into the docks with safety. And how to birth them according to their drafts of water not only in the wet docks, but in the graving or repairing docks, which are of different depths, that they may have water enough to get out as well as in. And they are thought to be of that importance to our pilots, that the laws for regulating the pilots make it a penalty of five pounds for a pilot being without a tide table, and a watch kept to solar time.

THEREFORE I hope these tide tables will meet with all the encouragement that the ingenuity and labour deserves to continue their publication,
The moon's distance to be attended to for the height and strength of the tides.

till time gives them a fair trial how near their theory agrees, with other shoal dangerous ports or places, that depends upon knowing the certainty of the time, and height of the tides flowing to proceed with safety, which may be a means to recommend such tide tables to be tried and used in proportion to the advantages that may be experienced from them. But till time brings this about, the only method to judge when the tides will be higher or lower than common is to attend to the moon's distance, being near her perigee or apogee as before-mentioned) which are remarked in the nautical or White's almanacks, and should be in all our navigation books, where the flowing of the tides are remarked; and to make an allowance, as a storm of wind happens to blow near or against the direction of the flood tide,
To make allowance for the wind being for or against the flood tide.

which I have observed to make an alteration of about three feet in the height of the tides, when I judged the wind blowing at the rate of about forty-five miles an hour. I cannot perceive, as has been imagined, that the tides are affected when our neighbouring worlds are passing near us in the same side of our orbits, as mentioned in page 88, or by the different weight of our atmosphere, as shewn by the barometer. And as I live fronting and but fourteen yards from the dock gates abovementioned, which opens with the flood and shuts at high water, whilst I am able and willing would be glad of any directions, rules, or hints, that might improve observations on the tides, to make them more useful to seamen, pilots, mathematicians, astronomers, or philosophers.

On Ripplings or Races that run at the Edge of strong TIDES.

THESE waves rise perpendicular very quick, and run in a confused manner in all directions, and fall with so swift a motion up and down, which makes in some measure temporary vacuums in the air, that interrupt the natural course of the wind, which keeps a ship the longer among these tumultuous waves that toss her about with such violent, confused, distressful motions, that immediately stops her way through the water, and the power of the helm to command her• and though there may be a fresh of wind make the sails •p to the masts, that they do little more than drive along with the race of the tide; therefore as much as possible should be avoided as dangerous, especially to open vessels, as I have experienced in passing one in a schooner rigg'd vessel, when we shipped so much water as nearly to sink us before we got through it. But when a vessel must pass them, it is best to do it with the wind large to get the sooner through. And of late I have known a ship of 300 tons that fell into one off the island of Ushant, by which they had their two boats washed off the deck and lost, and did a great deal of other material damage.

On a Ship at Anchor waiting for the TIDE.

A Ship lying near the shoals she is to pass or go over, I have known great advantages in observing the shoals at low water, and the flowing of the tide by the lead, and comparing it by the ship's draught of water, a great help to form a judgment when a ship will have water enough.

WHERE different remarkable places can be seen and distinguished, as the tide flows up to them, that continues nearly the same difference with the bar or shoal that the ship is to go over, these should be remarked in the draught of the place, what water there is when the tide is up to them, as may be seen in the instructions at the bottom of the chart of the bay and harbour of Liverpool, where there is eight different remarks for that purpose, but the best method is, where distinct signals can be made by colours or lights on shore.

On Leading Marks thro' Channels, or to avoid Dangers.

WHEN these are to be erected for this purpose only, they should be made singular to differ in appearance as much as possible from other common buildings, and their likeness laid down not only in miniature in their real situations, with the compass lines of direction leading to them, but in larger figures with their height in feet in some vacant part of the chart of the place, as the principal leading marks, and light houses are in the last plate of the chart of Liverpool, by which they may be known and distinguished from other objects, and from each other to prevent mistakes. And as buoys may be much better distinguished from one another by their shape than different colours, we have for some years past laid cask buoys to be left on the larboard hand,
To observe marks, buoys, &c. with a spying glass recommended.

and can buoys on the starboard hand in coming in through our channels, as may be seen in the chart abovementioned, which must certainly be a great help and guide to lead a ship in a fair way into a harbour; and when the time and weather permit, I would recommend to observe them with the spying glass at a distance as they appear above the horizon to compare their likeness, situation, and bearings with the chart.

Best colours for marks, b
••

ys, &c.FROM all my observations, red seems to be the best and most striking colour, to make these objects conspicuous at a distance in all weathers and situations, though it must be allowed, that when white happens to reflect the sun rays towards the eye, or situated in a shade, makes it some times very conspicuous, yet to take all weathers and situations it is often very bad to be seen, and a white buoy is bad to be distinguished among broken waves, but a mark coloured in thirds with black, white, and red, will answer best in all weathers and situations.

WOOD marks that are made to be shifted as the channels alter, to prevent their being blown down, it is common to leave an open space between each board that is nailed to make them conspicuous, the light passing through these open spaces I have observed to obscure the marks to a great degree, especially when the sun was any way behind them, and by having them boarded close proved a great improvement to make them be seen much better. There is a curious observation that may be made, when a ship's mast, or any other small object that comes in the way of the sun, when it is near the horizon, that it can be looked at with the naked eye, how the sun obscures and makes a deep dint to appear in the sides of these objects, which deserves the notice of astronomical observers.

On LIGHT-HOUSES.

AS many valuable lives and great property often depends upon the certainty of seeing these lights at a sufficient and proper distance.

THEREFORE no pains of expence should be spared to make them as perfect as possible, to answer their designed purpose, especially where there is a sufficient fund allowed to support them, or where the increase of trade and shipping are taxed so as to make large profits arise from them, which deserves the attention of all the public that is concerned to get our light-houses improved upon the best plan for the greater safety and advantage to shipping.

IT is well known from reason as well as experience, that open coal fire light, exposed to all winds and weathers, cannot be made to burn and show a constant steady blaze to be seen at a sufficient distance with any certainty, for in storms of wind,
Uncertainty of open fire lights.

when lights are most wanted, these open fires are made to burn furiously, and very soon away, so as to melt the very iron work about the grate, and in cold weather, when it snows, hails, or rains hard, the keepers of the lights do not care to expose themselves to the bad weather are apt to neglect till the fire is too low, then throws on a large quantity of coals at a time, which darkens the light for a time till the fire burns up again, and in some weathers it must be difficult to make them burn with any brightness. And when they are inclosed in a glased close light-house, they are apt to smoke the windows greatly, nor affords so much constant blaze (that gives the most light) as oil lamps, or tallow candles of two pounds each, but these last require often snussing to prevent their light from being dull, so that after trial of these different sorts of lights, we have fixed upon lamp lights, with proper reflectors behind them to answer best here at Liverpool.

On Oil Lamps with Reflectors and Light-houses.

IT is well known from experience that our common street lamps,
Advantages of lamp lights.

when the oil is good, will burn a long winter's night of sixteen hours, without any attendance, and consume but very little wick which plainly proves them the most certain, constant, and steady uniform lights, that can be used in light-houses, where shipping has to pass through dangerous and narrow channels by them, as they have here at Liverpool situated in a deep dangerous bay, with shoal sand banks at a great distance from the shore, as may be seen by the chart, lies open and exposed to the most current storms of westerly winds, and strong tides, which raises high and dangerous waves that occasioned many great and fatal losses before 1763, when four light-houses were erected, two large ones called the sea-lights, leading through the channel out to, and in from sea, till the two Hoylake lights are brought in a line, that leads into a very good road steed to lie, till it is a proper time and tide to proceed to Liverpool, as may be seen by the chart. And the losses have been very few, in comparison to what they were before these light-houses were built, which proves their great use to the trade of this place for safety as well as expedition in getting out and in by them;
Liverpool light houses.

they are built from twenty-five to one hundred and one feet high, as the situation and necessity requires two of them a great height above the level of the sea, as the curvature of our globe requires, according to the rules laid down in several of our navigation books, which should always be considered in proportion to the distance of the shoals from the light-houses, which should be so high as to appear and be seen above the horizon at a sufficient distance without the shoals from a ship's deck, that her situation may be known by the lights being open or near in a line, either to run, or get and keep the ship off by them in a fair way, as the occasion of time or tide may require.

Lamps & reflectors how made and fixed.

THESE lamps and reflectors, as represented in plate 10, fig. 1 and 2, are fixed in the light room, right fronting the channel or line of direction for a fair way, and opposite the middle of the window, which should be high enough in proportion to the reflector, and extend in width each way as far as necessary the light can, or may require to be seen.

THESE reflectors are made as near as they can be to the parabolic curve by drawing a set of parallel lines right across the focus or center line; and mark the focal distance above the parallel lines, and take an extent from the focal distance, to each parallel line one after the other, with these extents mark each parallel line in its turn from the focus or burning point with dots on each side of the focus line, to the extent of the designed diameter, and making a regular sweep from dot to dot, as represented in plate 10, fig. 3, by which method a form may be made, for the curve of a parabolic reflector of any focus or diameter, to have the property, when the sun's, or any other rays of light or fire comes upon them in parallel lines they are reflected to, and cross each other at the focus, which makes the focus the burning point; and just the contrary effect, when a burning blaze of fire or light is fixed in their focus all the rays of light that falls upon them are reflected right forward in parallel lines, with more or less power in proportion to the lustre or brightness of the reflectors, which are illuminated so as to look like a blaze as big as the reflectors themselves, to people in that quarter nearly facing them by the angle of reflection being equal to the angle of incident.

WE have made and had in use here at Liverpool, reflectors of one, two, and three feet focus, and three, five and a half, seven and a half, and twelve feet diameter, the three smallest made of tin plates sodered together, and the largest of wood, covered with plates of looking glass, shaped as represented by fig. one and two, plate 10, and fixed as near as can be to the above-mentioned rules, and a copper lamp, the cistern part for the oil and wick stands behind the reflectors, so that nothing stands before the reflector to intercept the blaze from acting upon it, but the tube that goes through it, with a spreading burning mouth-piece, to spread the blaze of the lamp parallel to, and with the middle of it, just in the focus or burning point of the reflector, as may be seen by the figures above-mentioned.

WE have a feeding can with oil to stand upon the cistern of each lamp, with a small brass cock that is turned to drop or run a little according to the consumption of oil, that it may be kept near to the level of the mouth of the lamp, near which is a little rim to prevent any drains of oil along the tube to the reflector (as may be seen in fig. 2.) which drops from the rim, to a dripping-pan that stands below the reflector, and if the cock of the feeding can should be turned to run too fast, to prevent an over-flow of oil there is a small hole and a tube in the cistern that lets the oil into a tin can standing below it. The lamps like the reflectors are proportional in their bigness to make a greater or less blaze as their distance to be seen requires, their spreading burning parts are from three to twelve, and fourteen inches, which makes the blaze the same breadth, and burns higher or lower, according to the quality of the oil, on which the goodness of the lights greatly depends. And as the wick is common cotton thread, spun for the purpose of lamps, and wound in lengths to fill the mouth of the lamps about a quarter of an inch thick, and as it consumes there is long mouth pincers, the lengths as above, to haul out the wick altogether through the tubes, as the occasion requires, and are snuffed with a pair of sheers in one hand, and a tin box with a little water in it in the other, for the snuffings, to prevent the danger of fire, and is only required to be attended and trimm'd by their keepers every four hours.

THUS are these Light-houses constructed, kept, and situated as above-mentioned, and has stood the test of fair trial, and the preference and advantages given to them, even by their opposers, as there always will be to new things, commonly calling them new whims, till time and trial confirm them useful improvements, which these are allowed to be by all that have seen them, for in a dark clear night the two sea lights (notwithstanding their height, and the curvature or roundness of the sea, as before mentioned) may be plainly seen when they are in a line with the horizon, not only from the deck, but from the mast head of a ship, which gives the advantage to see which way they are open, to bring them in a line in good time, either to keep the ship off, or run in by them in a fair way, as the circumstance of the time and tide prudently considered may require.

BUT it may be said that these reflecting lights only suit such places as require them to be seen only from one quarter of the compass, which must be acknowledged, though two of our lamps give a blaze twelve and fourteen inches square, yet there is but little reflected light above three points of the compass each way, but then it must be allowed that the blaze of the lamps can be seen as in common with other lights above half the compass clear of the edge of the reflectors, which illuminate greatly the atmosphere fronting them, that adds greatly to the light even in that situation.

Light-houses requiring to be seen more than half round.

A LIGHT house that may require to be seen above a half, or 3-4th of the compass may be fixed upon this plan with two or three reflectors, one to face each quarter, and have the tubes for the lamps from one cistern; or to have a parcel of small lamps, with reflectors of four inch focus, and eleven inch diameters, as represented in plate 10, fig. 4 and 5, which may be set upon shelves in rows very near the window, the upper row nearest, and those below a little behind,
On hand lamps and reflectors.

to prevent those below from smoaking those above them, by such means the rays of light that would go towards the land or against a dead wall, where they are not wanted, are reflected forward to add to the light that goes towards the shipping for which they are designed.

BUT where a light-house requires to be seen equally from all quarters quite round the compass, and lighted with a number of candles, or common lamps, as it is known from experience, that their rays of light pass and cross each other freely in all directions, without any visible interruption, which makes it a disputed point, whether reflectors would be of any service; which in my opinion a number of those hand lamps with their reflectors set round upon shelves near the windows as above-mentioned, would reflect many rays of light in an horizontal direction clear of the smoke, that would fall above and below the windows, and throw more light through the windows, with, than without the reflectors, from an equal quantity of lights, but the advantage that would be gained wants to be confirmed by experiment.

THESE hand lamps and reflectors were contrived to make night signals by lights,
Signals for ships seen off, and in distress.

to be set in the stair case windows of our upper sea light-house, that fronts towards the town, in case of any vessel being perceived in distress in the night, or when it is too dark to see the day signals, which are represented with the light-house, fig. 6, plate 10, as they were published upon a chard to make them known; and as they have given general satisfaction since they have been in use, and afford a greater number and variety of different vessels than any other set of signals I have seen I thought deserved this notice. Besides these public signals, several merchants have flag-staffs erected at a little distance from the light-house, that when their ships appear with their particular signal their colours are hoisted on their flagstaff for their information.

IT is further proposed to have at this light-house, a set of gun chambers charged with a composition of fire balls next the powder, then filled with saw-dust, and a sur plug drove hard in with a wooden mall, that when any vessel is perceived to make signals of distress for help, either by day or night, they are to be answered by firing one of these chambers, which stands with its breech upon the ground, that prevents any recoil, therefore discharges its contents right up in the air with a loud explosion, which will not only alarm the town to send help, but the fire ball sparkling in the air will give the distressed a great satisfaction to see that their signals are noticed to expect help. The situation of this light-house is well adapted to answer all these purposes, standing fronting the town and docks at three miles distance upon a stone hill about forty yards high above the level of the sea at high water, which makes it very conspicuous, both from the town and at sea, it being the first object that appears on shore above the horizon, in a fair direction for its channel as may be seen by the chart.

BUT to return to the hand lamps and reflectors, as before-mentioned, I tried one of them with our reflectors of three feet diameter, and one foot focus, made and glassed as represented in fig 1, 2, but it proved greatly inferior, though it might be seen at nine or ten miles distance, and in trying them with a common shop lamp with equal wicks, and set in different windows of the stair case of the light-house that faces the town as above-mentioned, when the reflected lamp eclipsed the common lamp to such a degree that I could not see it without using a spy glass at three miles distance, and these small reflectors being only beat out of common tin, that if they were improved and made of blown quick-silvered glass, silver plated copper, or reflecting telescope metal as concave mirrors, and sodered all together with the lamp in a tin pan like a dripping pan, as represented in fig. 4 and 5, only with the addition of tin stays behind the reflectors to keep altogether in handling them about, it is a doubt with me, whether a number set as before mentioned, would not be preferable to our large reflectors, for I have perceived from experience, that our large reflectors of one foot focus, and three feet diameter, reflects a stronger light in proportion than our large reflector of twelve feet diameter and three feet focus.

ANOTHER great benefit I thought might arise from these hand reflectors if they were brought to perfection, single light houses might be distinguished from one another by having different numbers of windows luminated by them, but in trying experiments with two of them, set in the first and second stair-case windows of the light-house already mentioned,
Experiment of the distance of a
•

gn •s not to appear as one. fig. 6, they appeared at three miles distance only as one light, though they were above ten feet asunder, and required to be set in the first and third windows, which is above nineteen feet asunder to appear as two distinct lights at three miles distance, which shews how much these imperfect hand reflectors, illuminated the atmosphere, and how necessary are experiments before new designs of this kind are put in execution.

IN light-houses, where reflectors are designed to be used, and the lights require to be seen at the greatest distance possible, according to their high or low situation above the level of the sea, the reflectors should be made to stand with their axes or centre pointing to the horizon; but where they are only required to be seen at a small distance to lead over a bar, or through a channel near them, then the reflectors should be pointed to the most necessary or most dangerous place, by which means the most rays of light are reflected to where they are most wanted. And from experience we find, that plate ground glass answers much best,
Round and window, with the best glass recom¦mended.

both for reflectors, and the light room windows, and the larger the panes, and the less wood in the window frames to obstruct the light, the better, and the windows that are framed round or circular, as well as the light-houses, stand and resist the wind much better than those that are made flat by the octagon or eight sided form. And to keep the light rooms as clear of smoke as possible, I would recommend a large opening in the centre of the roof with a nice cover, and a large vane to make it traverse freely with the wind, and to with-hold whatever contrivance, or the best materials that can make them the most perfect, as far as the fund which is to support them will afford, should be looked upon as an act of great villainy for the reasons given.

EXPERIENCE makes another remark here necessary, that without there is a small vacuity made in the walls of light-houses for the wet to drain down, it will beat thro' and rot the wood work.

On Running for dangerous Tide, or Bar Harbours.

CIRCUMSTANCES of times and places are so variable, that no rule can be laid down for this purpose; yet something should be said to endeavour to prevent as much as possible running imprudent risks at improper times, which has to my knowledge occasioned great damage, and many total and fatal losses. When both time and tide prove favourable to a ship's situation, it is then a point of duty, and highly commendable to push forward with all possible expedition to get into port.

BUT when either the time, or the tide proves unfavourable to a ship's situation, then it is the duty of the commander to be upon his guard, and act with prudent caution as the occasion may require, to consider and consult what ought to be done, and not to be persuaded even by a pilot to run at an improper time of tide, or in the night, or when it rains, snows, hails, or in hazey or foggy weather, it is well known that lights nor any other objects can be seen at a sufficient distance to keep clear of dangers; and where the lead cannot be depended upon for a guide. At such times and under such circumstances, and especially when the waves run dangerously high upon the shoals, the utmost endeavours should be used to keep clear of them till a favourable time and tide offers to get into safety, and nothing but to save a ship from sinking or foundering in deep water, should be a sufficient reason for running farther among dangers than there is a prospect of safety, whilst there is any possibility to keep a ship off from them.

On Running for Liverpool at improper Times.

FOR want of such prudent precautions and endeavours, as abovementioned, has occasioned great damage, and many fatal losses in attempting at improper times to get into the port of Liverpool, where the dangers are so many and great as to require not only a proper time of tide, but clear weather and day-light to proceed with a common chance for safety. Yet such has been the imprudence and folly of pilots and commanders of ships to run for our dangerous crooked bar channels, when no guides could be seen, and no compass courses, nor the lead to be relied on, by which they have lost their ships and lives. And some fatal losses have been •••sioned by subverting the very advantageous designed use of our light-houses, which are to show ships the way into H•ylake, a good ••ad-ste•d to wait for a suitable time and tide to get through the dangerous channels into the river or to get and keep a ship in a 〈◊〉 way, to be ready to proceed through the dangerous parts of the channels, as the circumstances of the wind, time, and the tide flowing but a little after daylight, may require.

BUT the great abuse and i•l use made of those lights, have been in running in by the two sea lights with gales of wind right upon the shore in the night, and instead of running into Hoylake by the two Hoylake lights, as before mentioned, they have attempted to run through our dangerous rock channel, where their vessel has been beat all to pieces, when nothing but the floating wreck has made known the misfortune, but no people saved to tell their melancholy tales,
R
••

mmended 〈…〉 tall a proper •me and •••e o•••. which might have been avoided by running into Hoylake, or to have kept off under sail to windwards off the sand banks, till the next day's tide, as a pilot of one of these unfortunate vessels was advised to do (when they boarded him) and which should be the practice of all ships trading to the port of Liverpool, whilst it is possible to be done, it is certainly better in a gale of wind to keep a ship under sail to windward, though it may be troublesome, than to risk riding upon a lee-shore to wait for a proper time and tide, and especially at the N. E. buoy of Hoyle, where they lie openly exposed to such high waves from the sea, that often breaks the cables that have been long foreign voyages, but if they hold, prevents their heaving a head against the flood, and to save tide, it is very common to cut of ••p their cables, and ••ns a great risk in casting and getting the ship fairly under way at such times in so little room, without anchors to bring them up as the occasion afterwards may require, which has often been the occasion of great damage, and always a certain expence and risk in getting the anchors again.

ALL possible pains should likewise be taken by observing the marks on shore, as mentioned in the instructions of the chart,
To observe the height of the tide by the marks on shore.

to hit the proper time of tide according to the ship's draft of water, for when the waves run high there may be as much danger in running too early as too late on the tide, for when the tide falls fast, a ship soon ceases from striking hard, which she continues to do all the time it flows, and may be drove out of the best of the channel,
Danger of running too soon in the tide.

for it a ship strikes till she looses her head way through the water, she is then left in a manner intirely to the power of the tide, wind, and waves, which may prove of fatal consequence at such times, by driving her quite out of the channel as the water slows, as we have sand banks detached from the main, that has very little water upon them at common tides, that a ship stands but a little chance of beating over them, or the people get to the main to save their lives if they are obliged to quit her.

IN the finest weather and smooth water,
To guard against cross tides.

it requires great care to observe and manage so as to fall in with the shoal parts of these channels at the proper time of tide, and a brease of wind to have the command of the ship to keep her in a fair way from being carried by the cross tides, that run over the sands, thro' the swatches, and false deeps, out of the proper channels, in spite of a boat towing a-head, which makes it too dangerous to attempt passing these channels in a calm. But when a calm, or bassling winds are likely to happen when passing them, boats to tow, or the anchor ready to let go as the occasion may require, should be made as ready as possible, to prevent the ship being carried on shore by these cross tides; which has often happened, and loss and great damage been the consequence; by the tide washing the sand from under them, more in one place than another, that occasions their straining to do much more damage than if a ship laid on firm ground.
On grounding on a sand
•

ank when the stood tide runs strong over it.

WHAT I think farther deserves particular notice on these occasions, I have seen many instances of ships, by running too early in the tide have come a-ground upon a sand bank, with the stood tide running very strong over it, when they have let go the anchor to prevent the ship driving farther on, and though they have veered out a long scope of cable, have been much deceived in their expectation, to bring the ship round with her head upon the tide to ride her, because she drawing most water aft, hangs her by the stern on the ground nearly end on to the tide, so that the anchor seldom holds to bring her more than broad side to the tide, which increases the strain to bring the anchor home, that she swings and lies with her stern nearly, end on to the tide as at first, and drives farther and farther on with the flood as the anchor comes home, which may prove of bad consequence in many situations. Therefore I have often thought how this might be prevented, by putting a spring or two upon the cable with a rolling hitch,
A hint to
•

de a ship by the stern. &c. so as to have two parts, to take one on each quarter so as to ride the ship by the stern, till the tide flowed enough to give room to swing clear of the ground, and as the situation may require to sheer or cast her stern towards the deepest water, by slacking or letting the spring go on that side designed to cast her, to lay the strain on the spring, and the helm on the other quarter, taking care that the cable is clear of the heel, by which means a ship may be swung, or ride by the stern clear of the ground, till the tide is done, as the occasion may require.

A hint on fogs.

I HAVE known ships get a-ground and receive great damage by being catched in the narrow and shoal parts of channels in a fog; and as fogs are allowed to be only low clouds, or moist dense vapours near the surface of the earth, I have heard of instances, that by going to the mast head they have got sight of objects for their guide, when nothing was to be seen from the decks. I recommend these expedients as worth a trial when there is occasion for them.

HERE I hope I may be allowed, for the present, to conclude the voyage of Practical Seamanship, by supposing, after a successful voyage, the ship to have arrived safe by good management under Providence, clear of all those difficulties and dangers that has been, or may be mentioned hereafter.

On Letter of Mart Ships and Privateers.

THIS is a trade that has and most likely always will be carried on in time of war with other trading nations. And ships as well as armies are well known to be more or less powerful, according to thei• force, in proportion as the people are disciplined and exercised in their duty, but for want of instructions how this is to be done I have known our people vastly at a loss, both in privateers and merchant ships, when a war happens after a long peace; as in the first part of the war before the last, I was in an East India ship of 32 guns, and a letter of mart ship in the Jamaica trade, where our great guns and small arms were never exercised, because none on board either ship knew how it was to be done, which might have been the occasion of the loss of ourselves and ships, if we had happened to have fallen in with, and engaged disciplined ships of equal force, which must be allowed will always have greatly the advantage over ships where their crews are not disciplined, the more daring and brave they are, the sooner they fall into confusion, which our people are the more liable to, by being in general too eager to fight, regardless of dangers from superior discipline or force, or any other disadvantages that may attend their situation, which proves the necessity that some instructions should be attempted for our letter of mart ships and privateers, to prevent as much as possible their falling by their own extraordinary courage and bravery. Therefore from the experience of two wars, I shall endeavour to point out what I think may be of some service in the first of a war, to fit them the better to attack an enemy, or being attacked to defend themselves in the course of a voyage, or on a cruise against the enemy.

BUT I must own this is a task much more fit for those gentlemen that have had the experience of the late brave actions, and improved discipline of our incomparable Royal Navy. And as I never had that advantage, I hope my defects will be thought the more excusable.

On Fitting out Letter of Mart Ships and Privateers.

SAFETY, as well as success, in my opinion, depends greatly on the manner these ships are fitted out. Trading ships designed more for defence than offence, I would recommend to be made to look as big, powerful, and warlike as possible in order to intimidate; but privateers the contrary, to look as little and defenceless, and conceal their power as much as possible, till there is a real occasion for it, then as suddenly as possible to make it known, as the occasion may require to give the greater surprise, which I can say from experience may often give great advantages.

AS to the size and number of great guns, the dimensions, strength, and properties of the ship, as mentioned in pages 25, 26, 27, &c. should point out what she will be able to bear without being too crank for a sailing and a fighting ship, though it must be allowed that the advantages in a sea fight are greatly in favour of the heaviest shot, but the many storms a ship may have to contend with, in a winter's passage, or cruise in a turbulent ocean, where the great guns may be often rendered a useless and dangerous incumbrance, by the waves running so high, that nothing but small arms can be used against the enemy, for which reasons a ship should not be over-crowded, or over-burdened with too heavy cannon.

Short and light guns recommended.

OUR late improvement, in the metal, casting, and boring of iron cannon, makes me recommend that they may be made short, and as light of metal as possible to bear a sufficient proof, which not only gives proportional safety and ease to a ship, in the times above-mentioned, but are managed and fought with greater safety, ease, and expedition, and will do sufficient execution at the small distance; the bravery of our people makes it necessary to fight our ships to the greatest advantage. And instead of mounting them on the common gun carriage, I take the liberty to recommend what I call the swivel carriage, not only as a great advantage to the ship in carrying them with more safety and ease all weathers, but likewise to the people in exercising or fighting them, which I shall endeavour to prove from reason as well as experience.

On the common Gun Carriage.

GREAT guns, mounted on these carriages to be ready at sea in time of war, are commonly carried either run out of the ports, or kept housed with their muzzles against the ship's side at the upper parts of the ports, as represented by one in letter D, plate 9, but is much more masterly delineated in Falconer's famous Marine Dictionary (which came out a good while after my plates were struck off) in his 7th plate the guns are represented, both run out, and stowed as last mentioned, fig. 19, with the muzzle against the side of the ship above the port, and he very judiciously remarks, at the securing the guns, to hook the takles so that a second breeching may be added, lashed and bowsed as tight as possible, to prevent the guns from breaking loose, which may be productive of dangerous consequences: and this by report has so often happened in our Royal Navy, that it was conjectured, that the Victory, a first rate ship of war, was lost by it. Therefore this method of carrying great guns deserve more particular notice.

On the Method of carrying Lower Deck Guns.

I OWN on this occasion to speak principally from the experience of only one ship that had only been three voyages to the East Indies, when she was fitted out first to cruise three months off the Western Islands, we carried thirty-two guns, and eight of them 12 pounders on the lower deck, housed as last mentioned, with their muzzles against the ship's side above the ports, which, when the waves ran high, did so work the ship, and the ship them with all their tackle about them, to such dangerous degrees, that for the safety of the whole, we were obliged at different times to put these guns down the hold, and leave our stations, to run for safety to a port to get our leaks stopped.

NOTWITHSTANDING this method is general, in all large ships of war that carries lower deck guns, yet I appeal to reason, and all who have observed, or considered, what occasions these guns to make so much noise, and fetch so much way in and out, as the ship rolls, works, and labours hard at sea, as has been mentioned, so must these guns be an additional power according to their weight and number added to the weight above them, with the masts, yards, rigging, and sails, all combine with high waves to strain and make the ship's sides bend, and fetch the more way as she rolls, and especially in that part made weak by the tier of lower deck ports, a little above the water's edge, where these guns are secured in the manner above-mentioned by their breechings at the lower part of the ports, and their muzzles confined to the side above the ports, which part must naturally bend and give more way when the ship rolls, than the lower part of the ports, where the breechings are made fast (as may be seen by the figures above-mentioned) by which it must appear evident to reason,
The cause of lower deck guns breaking loose.

that this tier of guns in every violent low roll the ship makes, those on the lower lee side, as it may be called, must move altogether and press their muzzles with great power against this lee side to strain it outwards so as to slack their takles and breechings greatly, when at the same time the weather, or upper side bends in proportion against the muzzles of the weather guns, to force them inwards farther than the stretching and straining of the breechings, can, with safety, be expected to allow, so that I rather wonder that they do not break loose oftener, especially in old week laboursome ships, and more liable in three deck ships than in two deckers, because they have so much more weight and two tier of guns above them, to strain and work the ship the more in proportion at the lower deck ports, as above-mentioned.

On Carrying the Guns Run out.

BY this method it must be allowed that they are carried with more ease and safety from the damage and danger above-mentioned, secured only with their two takles that confines the breast of the carriage close to the side at the cill of the port, where the straining of the ship can have little effect between that and the deck, to make the guns fetch any way worth notice. But they projecting so far without board, exposes them at all times, and to all weathers, and each gun must have what is called a half port, which are both troublesome and cumbersome, and the gun ports must be kept hauled up, that makes what may be called a rough and incumbered outside, which in small and deep loaded ships, when carrying a stiff sail upon a wind, are plunged into the sea, and stops water to leeward, whilst those to windward hold wind, which must naturally be a great hindrance to a ship sailing upon a wind, and liable to wet the charge in the guns. Therefore to remedy these defects, and other inconveniences that attend the great guns being mounted on the common carriage, is the reason why I take the liberty to speak and recommend a fair trial to be made of swivel carriages for great guns.

On Swivel Carriages for great Guns.

THIS carriage must be allowed to be somewhat more complex than the common one, because it consists of two parts, the carriage part with the iron work for the gun, takles, and breechings, as in common with other carriages, and the sole of the carriage on which it swivels or turns, as occasion requires, represented by the figures E and F, plate 9. We had a set of them made for the Liverpool privateer's guns, that carried twelve pound shot, The sole parts, as represented by the figure F, were made about three inches thick, with iron axes, and lignum vitae six inch trucks, so that the gun could be just swivelled about over them on the short bolt, figure 5, that was drove upwards with a square head below, that had holes in the corners for four nails, and a square plate above a little rounding upwards, with holes at the corners, fitting the bolt, and let in even with the sole, at the inner part of which is fixed a dove-tail plate, with an eye for the train takle, and two iron pall that turns in grooves in and out with the direction of the sole on the ends of eye bolts, exactly to confine the gun and carriage in a straight direction with the sole, as shewn by the figures 6, in the train part of the sole.

THE carriage part E, made as in common with other carriages to fit the size of the gun, and when upon the sole the height of the port, and to unite it to the sole part, right under the trunnions of the gun was fixed a three inch plank, with the four bolts of the trunnion irons clinched through it even with the wood, and likewise fastened to the cross breast-piece of the carriage, with a hole and two square plates, one above and another below in the middle, as represented figure 4 at E, just to fit and turn easily round the centre bolt in the sole figure 5, where a double forelock goes through the upper end to secure together the sole and carriage part; at the in or train part is fixed an inch plank fastened with the eye bolts for the gun takles clinched through it, for the bed and quoins of the gun to rest upon, and all this lower part of the carriages, as well as the upper part of the soles, was made as plain and smooth as possible, and the stress or friction lay chiefly on the two iron plates under the body of the piece, so that when the two palls were turned back the guns could be easily swivelled round by hand any way the occasion required.

On those Carriages carrying the Guns with more Convenience, Ease, and Safety to the Ship than the common Carriage.

THIS must be allowed to deserve some notice and attention, for on a winter's cruise or passage in a turbulent ocean, there may be more danger from the violence of the waves to be contended with, than from the enemies ships; and the guns mounted on these carriages, after exercise or action, at the word of command to house and secure the guns, they are swivelled round upon the soles fore and aft, with their muzzles forward, then the takles hooked to the two eye bolts at the train of the sole which is bowsed with the gun close to the side, and there secured by hooking the takles to the eye and ring bolts of the carriage part, and to those in the side where the takle falls are expended in lashings round and about the guns, by which they may be secured and stowed snug, and most out of the way that is possible, either on the upper or lower deck close to the ship side, without pressing hard against it, and with all their weight within board resting on the ends of the beams, and the lodging and hanging knees, where the decks and the ship's sides are strongest to support and carry them, not only with more ease and safety, but afford more room within board to work and manage the ship, than when they are carried run out, and gives the advantage of keeping all the ports close shut to keep the guns dry in small or deep loaded ships, and c•nceals them till it is necessary to shew them, and avoids all the other disadvantages that has been mentioned to attend their being carried constantly run out. These reasons, and other advantages, that I have experienced attends the s•ivel carriages, I hope will be thought sufficient to recommend them to answer the purpose of carrying the guns with more ease and safety to the ship, than the common carriage, either on the upper or lower deck, where the difference is represented by the two guns in figure D, plate 9.

The Advantages of these Carriages above the common ones, either for Exercise or Action.

COMPARATIVE difference can only be known by fair trials in practice. In the above-mentioned ship Liverpool, our spare carriages were of the common sort, when we were going to exercise our great guns, I ordered, and had one of them near the midship's, mounted on a common carriage, and had it exercised with the same men, along with the other guns as they had done before, and gave the word of command proportionally slow as this gun required, till the people had got expert in working it, then had an empty cask put out for the guns to be pointed at, and ordered to go through all the motions of charging and string as fast as they could, and observed the difference of time between this gun on the common carriage, and the other next it on the swivel carriage, at which the people performed regularly all the motions five times, for those with the common carriage thrice, which must be allowed to be a great difference, and these five men quartered at this g•n were so tired with their hard labour, in proportion to those five at the other guns, which beat them so much, that they begged to have their gun mounted on their swivel carriage again, which I consented to, being sufficiently convinced of this difference of five times to three with less labour and fatigue.

On pointing the gun to the object.

IN action they have likewise not only the advantage of being fired so much oftener, but pointed with more ease and certainty to do execution by the captain of the gun only, swivelling and breeching it about by hand, and makes the signal to fire, when it points directly to the enemy, independent of the other people; which the common carriage requires to be done by the other men with their gun hand-spikes to breech about the gun as their captain looks along it, and makes motions, by tapping on each side of the breech with his hands, as his orders cannot be heard, makes it very uncertain to got the gun pointed right to his mind, for the people are liable to breech the gun too far each way, or not far enough, that tires his patience, especially when he hears other guns fired so long before his, may be aggravated contrary to his inclination, to make the signal, and fire the gun wide of the enemy, rather than be thought so much tardier than the other people, who may only, to shew themselves brisk, be induced to fire at random, if not strictly attended to by their officers, and it cannot be expected that they can attend every gun. And when the situation of the enemy requires the guns pointed as much forward or aft as the ports will allow, as represented by the two guns on the different carriages, figure C, plate 9, it may be perceived that the sole of the swivel carriage stands in a direction right in and out, that when the gun is fired it recoils right back opposite to the port, ready and easily run •ut again after charged, when that on the common carriage recoils back in the same direction, that the gun points a great way from the port, that makes it troublesome to get it to the port again, and especially if they happen to be the lee guns, and the ship heels. The difference for the people's safety in the time of charging the guns likewise deserves notice, as may be perceived by the position of the two guns, sign• D, as abovementioned, that on the swivel carriage is swi•ell •bout, so that the people at the muzzle and breech stand sheltered from the small shot that may be fired in at the port, when those at the common carriage are exposed to it.

BUT it must be acknowledged that these swivel carriages require a little extraordinary trouble to keep the upper part of the soles clean, and greased a little at times, to make the guns swivel easy upon them. And as it is common to hear objections against new things, the only one I heard against these, that they would not stand a long and contested fight, which I own we had not the trial of, having learned from experience, that to make the contest short in our favour, was to get so near the enemy that our people could not well miss their object. And as the takles and breechings are all upon the carriage part, I could not perceive, from all my experience, that they would not bear as long firing as the common carriage, for the centre bolt, &c. has nothing to move but the weight of the sole. After this I was induced to think this carriage worthy the notice of the managers of our Royal Navy, therefore I got a nice model with a gilt gun, &c. made, and a friend to present it to Lord Anson, then at the head of the admiral•y, and was ready to give a report of it, but my well meant endeavours were disregarded, for I never heard or saw any thing further of my gun and carriage afterwards.

IF time, after trials, should bring these swivel carriages into practice, I would recommend what I thought would be a further improvement to enable the captain of the gun to point it to the object with still more ease, by having a hole bored tapering in the centre of the cascabel of each gun, and to have light round handy crows made to fit the holes, which, in my opinion, would give power to a single man to point the gun in any direction from its highest elevation to its lowest depression, and without injuring the cascable from answering all its necessary purposes.

BUT in either sort of carriages care should be taken, that they are of a proper height, for the ports, for I have often seen guns mounted so low, that when the breech was raised they could not recoil clear of the cill of the ports, which is a great fault.

On fortifying the Quarter-Deck.

WHATEVER may contribute to shelter and save the people must be allowed to deserve notice. Various methods and things have been tried for this purpose. I was in a ship that had bags of ox hair, that was said would resist even cannon shot, but in fighting with a French frigate I saw one of her shot go through eighteen inch of hair, and through the middle of an eighteen inch mast, and a long way over our ship afterwards, which proves no fence can be made about a ship against cannot shot, but only against small and musket shot, a fence may be made many ways.

HOWEVER this fence or breast-work may be made to shelter the people from small shot, in common they are no more than breast high, so that the musketeers can fire fairly over it upon the enemy, but from experience in fighting, I have observed among new fighting men there will always be some of them apt to shew that natural instinct of self-preservation, and in order to keep their heads under shelter of the breast work from the enemies shot, fire their muskets at random up in the air. In seeing this, and to prevent the bad effect of such examples, in fighting, I have made a faint lunge at a man's breast with my drawn sword, and obliged to threaten death to any man that should shew such a bad example, though it must be allowed only a failing, and not a fault among new undisciplined landsmen, first coming to action, especially at seeing a man shot through the head above the breast-work, may shew a little fear, but by practice prove brave afterwards.

THEREFORE to remedy this defect which I perceived in fighting the small arms, in fitting out a privateer afterwards we had a rail, as in common, breast high on each side the quarter deck, and on the rails were fixed light iron crutches with the arms about a foot square, and a shoulder to keep the bottom of the crutches about six inches above the rails, and thin boards about six inches broad laid upon the bottom of the crutches, and netting with large square matches were so med just to hold a hammoc with its bedding long-ways, and from the gunnel to the rail was boarded up on each side of the stantions, and filled up with rope shakens, cork shavens, &c. which is found sufficient proof against musket ball; which made so ready and good a fence for the quarter deck musketeers, that the most timorous could point his piece with the utmost confidence between the rail and the netting, and fire right upon the enemy, by having his head, as well as his body, under such secure shelter.

FOR the same reasons in clearing and preparing the ship for fighting, I used to make the forecastle and top men, lash the hammocs to shelter them, horizontally on the outside of the fore and top-mast shrouds, close to one another breast-high, then a single hammoc above leaving a little vacancy to point and fire their muskets thro', which guards that tender and most important seat of knowledge, the brain part of the head, as well as the other parts of the body which it governs, from the enemies small shot.

On Carrying Swivel Guns in the Tops.

THE high situation of these guns promises a great advantage to do great execution in close fighting, but I have learned from experience, that there is not room in a small ship's top to fight those guns without great danger of fire, and blowing up the ammunition chest, which we had the misfortune to do, that killed one of our top-men, for which reasons, and the great weight and incumbrance of them and their ammunition at so great a height, makes me recommend muskets only to be carried in the tops of small ships, as they can be pointed and fired in all directions as occasion may require, and so easily and readily charged, that they are to be preferred to all combined pieces, called organs, &c. which are also under the disadvantage of taking up more time in proportion to the musket in charging them again.

On the Powder and Shot.

AS the execution of the shot to conquer an enemy depends intirely on the goodness and strength of the powder, which differs so much, that the greatest care and caution is absolutely necessary to guard against being cheated in the quality of the powder, for I have experienced some that looked very fine and good made for the use or rather shameful abuse of the African trade, that instead of firing shot with sufficient velocity, it would hardly fire itself, but spent itself in phizzing one phiz after another out at the touch-hole, and taken up so much time in burning, that it could not be used as priming for great guns.

THIS base practice of making so very weak powder should by some means be put a stop to, because it not only hurts the merchant adventurer, but the intention of government in giving so large a bounty on exportation for the encouragement of the trade of making good gun-powder. Therefore it should be either under the inspection of proper essay masters, or bring into practice proper methods to try its strength; and I can say from experience, that the common small pistol powder provers that drives a circular graduated plate round, does not answer the purpose, for they will differ greatly with the same powder.

To prove the powder.

THEREFORE I would recommend for this purpose of trying powder, to have a gun of a half pound shot, fixed in a convenient place, mounted firm on a wood block or bed, elevated exactly at 45 degrees, and the powder to be tried by an ounce charge how far it will throw the half pound shot without any wad, and in proportion for every foot or yard's distance under or over a standard distance that might be fixed by government's powder, to ascertain its strength and value under or over proof, according to the different trade or purpose it is designed for, as well as for privateers or letter of mart ships, which should be of equal goodness with that for the Royal navy.

ON shot, the first and principal, both for quantity and quality, is the round iron cannon ball, because it will go and penetrate farther with a greater velocity than any other to do execution, when engaging with a superior force, but when come to a close fight with a ship of inferior force, expecting to make her a prize, then the endeavours should be not to destroy the ship if it can possibly be avoided, but to distress them to make a submission, therefore some suitable shot that will answer that purpose best should be provided. And I would recommend round tin cases to fit the bore of the guns, and filled with musket ball, and square bar iron cut about 14 inches long, tied in bundles with rope-yarns just to fit the guns, or cast iron bars about the same length, a square one about an inch diameter in the middle, and four others quartering rounded on the outside to fit the bore of the guns when tied with rope yarns.

On keeping a clean Bottom.

THE great difference this makes in a ship steering, working, and sailing, makes it a matter of such importance, that all possible means should be used to prevent the ship's bottom from growing foul, and the best method that I have experienced for this purpose is to be provided with what I call a cask scrubber, as represented in plate 9, fig. A, which I have often used in different ships with success when at an anchor, and in calm weather on the open ocean. I had these scrubbers made of elm board about an inch thick and twelve broad, the middle part of the frame just to fit a ten gallon cask, that was lashed to the battens at each end, and the long square spaces on each side of the cask filled with birch broom stuff projecting about six inches without the frame, and wedged fast towards the ends with long wedges against boards that slides with small tenants at each end in a groove to keep the birch fast and firm, for scrubbing the bottom, even close down to the keel, and the iron work which unites the two parts by a joint that they may the more naturally ply to the curved or rounding parts of the ship's bottom, with the slings and the ropes fastened to the eye bolts, may all be perceived and understood by looking with attention at the figure that represents that side of the scrubber that is hauled next to the ship's bottom.

IN using this cask-scrubber we bad a block lashed under the bowsprit end, and another on the driver boom rigged out right aft, and a single rope reeved in these blocks, and made fast to the slings marked 1, 2, in the figure, and just long enough to veer and haul the scrubber along the bottom fore and aft close to the keel, another rope bent to the lower part of the scrubber, as marked 3, and hauled tight under the bottom, and made fast to the inside of the boat's main thoft, when the upper part of the scrubber is even with the water's edge a midships on the other side, then the people was ordered to walk fore and aft with the rope to the scrubber, till it came up to the water's edge each way, the boat moving the same way with the scrubber, the people in her helping by pushing their hands against the ship's side, till the first depth is thought to be clean enough, then the people in the boat hauls by their rope the scrubber a depth lower, by which, and the empty casks, it is confined and pressed to the bottom at the different depths, till it is scrubbed clean down to and even the keel itself, by the rope going fore and aft under it.

WHEN a ship's bottom can be kept clean by such easy means, I think it should be reckoned a great reproach to those who neglect it, because success may depend upon it, not only in time of war, but in peace on southern voyages, especially in the African slave trade, where I have known a ship that l•st the whole adventure of her voyage, and come home with her b•t•m covered all over with clusters of mixed shell-fish, projecting •m the bottom, and in diameter about six inches each, made up of large barnicles, mussels, and oisters, as represented fig. B. plate 9, which naturally increased greatly the surface and stop-waters of the bottom to hinder the ship from sailing one half the distance more than she might have done, had her bottom been kept clean as abovementioned, consequently made her passages in half the time, which might have made a gaining instead of so great a loosing voyage; for which reasons, rather than such a necessary work should be neglected, I think it should be made a part of the commanders instructions to do it when it cannot be done by other more effectual means. And where iron work is not provided to make a scrubber of this sort of two parts as above mentioned. I have thought that one part might be made to answer the purpose, and slung with ropes without any iron work.

On the sailing of Letter of Mart Ships, or Privateers.

SITUATIONS, circumstances, and times vary so much, that no established rules can be fixed, yet, I presume, something may be said that may prove of some service to inexperienced people in this made.

It is a common saying among commanders of ships, that it is better to •k their •wre•s than their orders, which are common on these occasions, to proceed with all possible expedition to the designed stations or tracks of the enemies trading ships, to take prizes, &c. But it should be considered, for the same reasons, that their cruizing and armed trading ships, may be expected to be met with in the track of our trading Ships, that may require to come to immediate action, and if the ship and people are unprepared for it, for want of being properly stationed, and not having had some exercise in their duty of fighting, as before mentioned, page 159, it may prove the loss of the whole. And, as a further inducement, to get the ship and people prepared as soon as possible for action, I can say, from fortunate experience, that the richest prize I have been at taking, in the course of the two last wars, was upon the south coast of Ireland, which track they had made choice of, to avoid our crusing ships on the French coast, and to meet with some of our merchant ships in their way, one of which they had taken.

On Stationing and Exercising the People.

FOR the above reasons, the people should, as soon as possible, be all stationed or quartered to the best advantage, according to their capacities; the oldest and best seamen to be captains of the great guns, the young, nimble, and expert, to the rigging and tops, the landmen to the small arms, and the boys to be powder carriers for the great guns, &c. and as they come on board, if it is possible that it can be done, they should be exercised accordingly; and to encourage and make them willing they should be told, that not only their success but their safety as well as liberty depends upon their being expert in their exercise, which should be with as few, easy, simple words and motions, as possible, both for the great guns and small arms, that they may the sooner be fit for action.

THE exercise of the great guns, as reduced from 40 words of command, (as they used to be,) to 14, are very well described in Falconer's marine dictionary. But this being for the guns on the common carriages, I take the liberty to mention the difference we used for the swivel carriages. At the word of command, cast loose the gun, the train or one of the gun tackles is hooked from an eye bolt amid-ships, to the train of the sole of the carriage, and the gun bowsed in, till it has room to be breeched about to the foremost pall, turned down for that purpose; then turn down the after pall, which done, the guns are then ready to be run out either for exercise or action. And when the gun is run out, the two palls are to be turned back, with one motion, then the gun may be breeched about, and pointed by hand, fore or aft, on the object, or enemy, as much as the width of the port will allow. And when the object, or enemy, is much before the beam, let the guns be run out close to the after part of the ports, and when abaft the beam close to the fore part of the ports, that they may be pointed more fore or aft, as the occasion may require, and the breechings not being seized, but rendered through the thimble at the breech, make both parts tight alike to bring the guns up in any direction they may be fired in, either foreward or aft. And when the guns are run in, breech about their muzzles forward, to load, then turn down the foremost pall, and breech the gun to it, and then down after pall, to run out the gun again, as before mentioned.

THE exercise of small arms I would recommend that it should be done with as few motions as possible (and as is done in the front rank of our army) kneeling upon the right knee, and only rising up to fire, as the place and occasion may require; which not only keeps the people under shelter, but firm in their place, to do their duty without being tosted about by the ships motion in the sea, especially the landmen who cannot be expected to have got their sea legs, as it is called, so as to stand firm to load their guns, when the ship has much motion.

On Exercising Manoeuvres; how to atack or defend a Ship.

AS soon as the ship has got to sea, I would recommend what was my practice, that is, to take the first possible opportunity to have all hands called to quarters; the officers, in their stations, to have every thing made properly ready and fit for action; to have a general exercise, not only of the great guns and small arms, as before mentioned, but the method of working and managing the ship, to take the advantage of the openings, that I know, from experience, often occur, in attacking, or being attacked by another single ship, which should be studied by every commander, and the designed manoeuvers should be taught the people in their general exercise, that they may know how to act, and move regularly from one place and side to the other, as the occasion may require, without confusion, which is always the consequence, when the intention and management of the manoeuveres are not made known to the people in general.

FOR these reason, as soon as possible, I used to make known to the people in general, that when a ship, of near equal force, brought to with a design to fight us, my intention was not to run directly along side, and lie to like a log, and depend upon meer battering, with one side only; nor upon the stern chace guns. When it is found that there is no chance of running from a ship of much superior force chacing us, and when their best sailing is upon a wind, it is a common practice for them to run up and bring to under the lee, in a trumphant manner, depending on their superior power, commonly demanding immediate submission, without expecting any resistance. The designed manner of resisting or attacking, I always endeavoured to conceal as long as possible, as mentioned page 160; and these two cases give all the advantages desired by my method. Begining the attack upon the weather quarter, shooting the ship up in the wind, with the helm a lee, till the after lee gun, which we begin with, can be pointed upon the enemy's stern, then fire the lee-broad side, as it may be called, as represented in plate the 8th. The ship (figure 1) begins the attack upon the ship (figure 2) when the topsails are thrown a back, with the helm a lee, boxes the ship short round on her heels, as mentioned in box hauling, page 52, so as to bring the wind so far aft, that the ship may immediately be steered close under the enemy's stern, as the ship (figure 3) is represented, running under the stern of the ship (figure 4) with particular orders to begin with the foremost gun, to rake them right fore and aft with the great guns, as they pass in that line of direction, all aiming and siring to break the neck or cheeks of the rudder head, the tiller, ropes, blocks, &c. that, if possible, to destroy the steerage tackle; which design, if it proves successful, takes the management of their ship from them, so that she must lie helpless, for a time in spite of their endeavours; and when the aftermost gun is fired, put the helm hard a weather to bring the ship by the wind, and then stand off on the other tack, to keep clear of their lee broad side, and act according to their motions, and the experience of the effect your attack has had upon them. If they continue to lie to, either to renew the attack again, in the same manner, as soon as the ship will fetch their weather quarter again, or to make sail off to escape, if it has been found that the great inequality of their superior force admits of no possible chance of conquering them; though this manoeuvere may have given this advantage, which, in my opinion, ought always to be attempted, and not to submit tamely, tho' a ship is above double the force, because by this manoeuvere the power of their broad sides may be chiefly avoided.

But when the inequality of force is not so great, but there is a possibility of conquering; and if the success of the first attack is perceived to oblige the enemy to continue lying to, in order to repair the damage done their rudder or tiller, &c. then the blow should be followed, by renewing the attack again with all possible expedition, in the same manner, which gives the opening not only to fire the whole round of great guns, to advantage, but also to the marines and topmen to fire their small arms, at the same time, to great advantange, to do the most execution possible by firing and raking them fore and aft thro' their most open and tender part, the stern, with the least risk possible from the enemies guns, therefore gives the greatest possible chance, that I known of, to make an easy conquest, especially, if so lucky as to destroy, and prevent, the recovery of their steerage. A ship of much superior force may be brought to such a distrest condition as to be obliged to make a submission for want of the helm to command her, therefore when an opportunity offers, in fighting, this should be always aimed at.

But suppose the enemy laid to as above mentioned, find themselves not much hurt by this manoeuvere, and that you have not succeeded in destroying their steerage, and therefore you may expect that they will immediately tack, or ware ship, and stand after you, depending on their advantages of sailing faster, and superior force, runs up along your lee side, expecting, by making a general discharge of their small arms and great guns (charged with suitable shot) on your deck, which lies open to them by the ship heeling, to destroy your people and to make you submit. When this is likely to be their design, orders should be given to your people to keep themselves as snug under shelter as possible from their small shot, till their general discharge is over, then if the ship is found not so disabled, but that the topsails can be thrown a back, to make a general discharge, from the lee side, of the great guns, loaded with round shot only, pointed to the weather side of the enemies bottom, amid-ships to one point, at the water edge, and box haul the ship to run close under their stern, aiming at raking and destroying their steerage, with the other broad side, and stand off on the other tack as before mentioned, to act according to circumstance and the condition you find yourselves in, compared with the appearance of that of the enemy and their motions, who may be obliged to continue on the other tack to repair damages about their rudder, or to stop their leaks in the weather side of their bottom, if your aim has proved successful.

BUT when an enemy's ship of force makes only a running fight, if there is no necessity to cut them off from the shore or from the shelter of other ships, &c. and you have the advantage of sailing faster,
O
•

an ene¦my of force making a running fight. the most sure and likely method to make an easy conquest with the least hurt to yourselves, or their ship, (your expected prize,) is to run close up and shoot or sheer your ship across their stern each way, making a general discharge of all your force, first with one broad side, then the other, always aiming with the great guns at the rudder head, and steerage tackling for the reasons given, that if the shot miss the rudder, &c. they by raking the ship fore and aft through the stern, does the greatest execution possible to distress them so as to make a submission.

ON this occasion when it blows fresh, and obliges to carry a pressing sail large, or before the wind, to make the great guns as ready as possible, and prevent their being fired too low, all their breeches should be laid quite down in the carriages, and if your ship is crank, the yards should be braced, so as to shiver the sails at the time each broad side is fired.

IN all these manoeuvers, when the whole round of great guns are designed to be fired, care should always be taken to leave two or more men, as it may require, to charge each gun again when fired on one side, whilst the others move over to fire the guns on the opposite side, that neither side may be left unguarded, all which with every other advantageous manoeuver that may be designed to be put in practice, in action,
On exer¦cising with a risk to point the guns and fire at.

should be taught the people along with the general exercise of great guns, and small arms (as before hinted that I have done), by throwing a tight empty beef cask over board, making it the object of attack, for all the guns to be pointed at, when performing the above described or other intended manoeuvers about it, first by running a little way large from it, then haul the wind tack ship and stand towards it, keeping it about three points on the lee bow till within a half cables length, or musket shot of it, then put the helm alee, and shoot the ship up in the wind with the topsails aback, till the after gun can be pointed to the cask, then give the word of command to fire, when there is a fair opening to make a general discharge, both below and aloft on that side as represented (plate the 8th) the ship figure 1, begining the attack on the weather quarter of the ship, figure 2, as before described, which the cask may be supposed to represent, as well as the ship figure 4; when you have box hauled your ship, and run close past the cask to make a general discharge from the other side, as represented by the ship, figure 3, then bearing round away from it, waring and haul the wind on the other tack, till you can tack and fetch up to it again to repeat this, or perform any other manoeuvers that may give an advantage to attack or defend a ship laid to, or sailing upon a wind as above mentioned. To perform the manoeuver of attacking an enemy that makes a running fight large, or before the wind, it is only to turn far enough to windward of the cask, to give room in sailing down to it to bring the ships broad side to point to it each way. But to perform this manoeuver to the greatest advantage, with the least loss of time, and the ships way through the water, which may be of great importance on this occasion to keep close up with the enemy, therefore all the great guns should be run out close to the after part of the ports, that they may be pointed as far forward as the sides of the ports will admit, and elevated as the heeling of the ship when brought to, to fire may require as before mentioned. And particular orders should be given for the aftermost guns on each side to be fired first, as soon as they can be brought to bear upon the enemy, because, then the ship need not be brought any more to, but steered in that direction till the other guns are fired, then shift the helm to ware to bring the other broad side to bear, &c.

AFTER the people have been thus disciplined, it is necessary to let them smell powder, as it is termed. And a little ammunition spent in exercise is allowed, may be the means to save a great deal expended to little or no purpose in action, therefore I used to allow a small charge of powder for the round of great guns, with stone ballast for shot, and the musketeers two charges with balls each, and give them a fair chance, by these manoeuvers to fire both broad sides, great guns and small arms at the cask, if they sunk it all hands to have an allowance of grog, as it is called, but if they did not sink it, to have the trouble and mortification to hoist out the boat and fetch it on board to serve another time, by some such means and methods only, it is possible to make the people expert in their duty to fight a ship to the greatest advantages. But two ships in concert exercising the different manoeuvers, by turns as might be agreed upon, and making a sham fight with powder only would contribute most to answer this purpose, and to find out the best trim of their ships for sailing, by the people moving fore and aft with as many shot as they all can carry with them, &c.

On a Ship Cruising in her Station.

SITUATIONS and circumstances are so variable that no certain rules can be laid down for this purpose, yet I think hints may be given that may contribute towards getting sight of, and fall in with the enemies trading ships, when got in their track, on which success intirely depends.

CRUISING the war before last in the employ of that great hero Fortunatus Wright, in the Mediterranian sea, where the wind blows generally either easterly or westerly, that is either up or down the straits, therefore it was planned, with either of these winds that blew, to steer up or down the common channels the common course, large or before the wind in the day time without any sail set, that the enemy's trading ships a stern crouding sail with this fair wind might come up in sight,
On cruising without sail in the day, and under topsails at night.

or we come in sight of those ships a head that might be turning to windward, and at sunset if nothing appeared to an officer at the mast head, we continued to run five or six leagues as far as could then be seen before we laid the ship to for the night, to prevent the ships astern coming up and passing out of sight before morning, or we passing those ships that might be turning to windward, and if nothing appeared to an officer at the mast head at sunrise we bore away and steered as before. And when the wind blowed across the channels that ships could sail their course either up or down, then to keep the ship in a fair way, in the day time to steer the common course under the courses and lower stay-sails, and in the night under top-sails with the courses in the brails, with all things as ready as possible to take or leave what we might fall in with in the night.

MANY other advantages attend cruising without any, or but with low sails set, as above mentioned in the day time and fine weather, when other ships are crowding with all their lofty sails set, one may be seen at twice the distance of the other, which gives the opportunity to see them a long time before they can see you, who may take their bearing by the compass and observe how they alter, by which it may be perceivable how they are steering, and consult what is best to be done,
Not always to give chase at the first seeing a ship.

if it is too late in the day to give chace which should always be considered, that three mast ships in fine weather with all their lofty sails set, may be seen from each others mast heads seven leagues distance, which must make a seven hours chace, at three miles an hour difference in the ships sailing which is a great deal with a leading wind, and if the chace happens to be to windward, must make it still longer in proportion of time to come up with her, and when they perceive they are chaced and think themselves in danger of being taken, will naturally use all possible means to escape out of sight, by altering their course in the dark, if they cannot be got near enough to keep sight of them in the night.

FOR these reasons, without the time, situations, circumstances, and appearance require immediately to give chace with all your sail at the first sight of a vessel, otherwise it often happens that you may stand a much better chance to speak with a vessel by endeavouring to way lay and conceal your design and ship from them, which may be done even in the day time with all the sails furled as beforementioned, till within about four leagues distance, that is computed a ships hull in a clear horrison begins to appear above it. When this concealment can be made, and to be all ready prepared to take or leave, and can fall in with the expected enemy in the night, or early next morning if they are found unprepared for action, must give a great advantage over them. But when you cannot be concealed from the expected enemies vessels in sight that may be coming with a fair wind towards you, then it should be considered whether instead of giving chace with all your sail set in fine weather, it may not be better to disguise your ship to appear as an inoffensive neutral ship, by geting your fore and mizen topgallant yards down, and the mast struck with only their heads above the caps, as mentioned page the 18th, and either stand upon the wind with the maintop gallant sail set, if not noticed till by tacking you can fetch near the intended chace. Or to steer near the same course with them, with stop waters towed in the water which I have been doing with success to make the ship sail so comparatively slow as to induce an enemy to come faster up with you, than you could with them by chasing.

On Chasing.

IN chasing, all possible pains should be taken, to set and trim the sails to the best advantage, as has been mentioned on that subject, and to consider the properties of your ship, if she excels most in sailing upon a wind, when chasing with a leading wind, the chase should be kept upon your weather bow, to prevent her getting to leeward of you; but if you excell most in sailing large, and not upon a wind, the chase should be kept upon the lee bow to prevent her getting to windward of you; or according to the motions of the chace, that will naturally endeavour to make use of the same advantages of their best sailing, and if they are a light ship, or lightly loaded, they will sail better large than upon a wind, and if a deep loaded ship, better upon a wind than large, &c all which deserves notice; to chace to the best advantage, and as soon as it can be done, the helms-man should see, and be directed how to keep and steer steady by the chace, independent of the cun, which is known to help a ships sailing to come up with the chase.

BUT it often happens in chasiing, that night comes on, which makes it very uncertain how long, or whether the chace can be seen or not, though many may pretend to see her plain, long after she has been lost sight of by the commander, who should not depend upon other peoples eyes without trying every now and then, whether they point to see the chace, in one and the same part of the horizon, when the ship is privately ordered to be wared about from her course, a point or two of the compass each way, and according as they agree or disagree from this rule, either to continue or leave off chace, and crowd sail to get a-head and way lay the chace, in the way they seemed to be bound, which from experience I can say gives the best chance of falling in with them again.

On towing and rowing a ship in chace

CHASING in little winds and calms, may often require both to tow and row the ship with oars, therefore, to do it in the most advantageous manner, deserves notice. When towing a ship to make her steer and work, it may require the tow rope not only from the bowsprit end, but from the jib boom-end which will give more power in proportion as it is farther from the ships turning motion to pull her about, but when towing to give a ship the most head way possible, the tow rope should be made fast no higher than necessary to keep it clear of the water.

TO row the ship with oars, the oars should be made suitable to the room the ship affords to row and stow them. In the Liverpool privateer, before mentioned, we rowed with eleven oars on each side, and sculled with two, run out right aft, after the manner of the Chinese. And in order to add more power, by more people pulling altogether at the oars on each side, and prevent the confusion and hindrance that is occasioned by the people's not pulling altogether, we had swifters for each side made of single ropes with gromits in them, at the same distance of the row ports from each other, and put on the handles of the oars so that men could pull between the oars by these swifters, which after a little practice, soon made all the people pull completely together.

THE two sculling oars abaft were made crooked or curved, with the flat of their blades bending downwards, and an iron socket nailed to the under part of the oar at the port, when the blade was flat in the water,
On scull¦ing Oars

and a short bolt tapered and filed like a wood-screw, with a round head, was fixed in the middle of the ports for the oars to turn upon, and staples in the deck, right under the handle of the oars, to hook a line with an eye-splice on the handle of the oar that bears the strain, whilst the men scull by standing on each side of the handle of the oar, and only have to pull to, and push from them with all their strength, which makes the blade cant and act slanting downwards into the water each way with great power, to give the ship head way, and may likewise help to steer the ship and bring her about from one tack to the other, when it cannot be done by the rudder, and sweep a ship's stern about as occasion may require, when engaging in a calm.
On sculling in China.

The comparative power and effect of sculling oars, to force a vessel through the water, is indisputably proved in China, where the people appeared to me no ways expert in their navigation, but in this method of sculling all their very numerous river vessels and passage boats great and small without any sail or rudder; and this they do in a more dexterous easy and expeditious manner, in my opinion, than any other part of the world that I have seen. I have observed with pleasure their vessels with 20 tons of goods and room to accommodate their families, sculled by two men only, from the city of Canton (20 miles) to our ships, stemming and sculling against the tide, running above two miles an hour and laying the ships on board in a safe and easy manner. And not only their large river vessels, but their small boats are moved very fast through the water by this method of sculling. I was one in a fine eight oar'd pinnace that was beat with ease and laughed at by two men in one of their common bumb-boats in spite of our utmost endeavours, this therefore deserves notice, and might in my opinion be brought into useful practice among us, on many occasions, in narrow rivers, canals, boats to land numbers of men where there is not room to row with oars, and our whale boats, &c. for with the very power they scull the vessel a-head they steer her at the same time, which must on this account be much better than a rudder, that stops water, as has been observed on rudders. I cannot forbear here remarking that these Chinese sculling vessels are built upon good principles to answer their purpose, as all vessels that are to be moved with oars or paddles ought to be, having flat rounding bottoms, with flanging projecting bows and sterns, without keel, stem or stern post to hinder their ready turning, and drawing so little water that they are easily made to skim in a manner, at a great rate over the surface of it, where the particles give way much easier than they can do at a greater depth,
On Por¦posses sculling with the tails.

and their method of sculling makes (them as much as possible for art) to imitate the nature of Porpoises, which scull with their horizontal tails swifter than any other fish we see at sea, where they frequently seem to sport and mock a ship when sailing at the rate of ten miles an hour and will swim as may be observed sculling with their horizontal tails cross and cross the ships bows at such an angle, that they cannot go less than at the rate of 30 miles an hour, which must be allowed to make greatly in favour of the Chinese method of sculling their vessels, instead of rowing them as we do with oars, which are levers, and our method of applying their power in rowing, will in my opinion never be beat, by any complicated machinary.

On coming to action.

NOW we may suppose a ship to have come up so far with her chase, as to perceive them to have the appearance of enemies and preparing for action, then the appearance of their force and motions, should be strictly observed by the commanding officer, and he must proceed accordingly, to make all necessary preparations in good time against the worst that may happen, guarding against being surprized unprepared by any sham appearance and motions that may be used to deceive, as I was in a cruizing ship the war before last, when the starboard side of our mizen top was shot away by the enemy before our commander would permit all hands to be called to clear ship for action.

WHEN come so near to the enemy in chace, that they prepare and fire their stern chace guns, which is a sign of weakness and fear, and which commonly gives joy to the chasing ship, though it must be allowed to give them a chance of shooting away some of your masts and helps their ship forward, but as success depends entirely upon getting close up to have them at command; therefore without some good reason you should not be tempted to fire your bow-chace guns, because they will stop your ship's head way that may occasion the loss of your expected prize.

BUT when the chace is perceived to be a ship of force preparing and clearing ship for action without running out their stern chace guns, then all possible pains and expedition should be used to clear ship, and make all the necessary preparations, that the circumstances of the time and attack may seem to require, to have the yards slung, the top-sail sheets stopperd, to leave nothing to be done but to haul up the courses to come regularly to action.

On providing drink for the people.

ANOTHER preparation I would recommend when by the enemy's appearance it is likely to prove a hard battle, and sighting vigorously especially with great guns is such hard work that soon exhausts the people's spirits, and makes them so thirsty as to induce them to go from their quarters to get drink; to remedy and prevent this as much as possible, when the ship's stores will afford it, (as I have done) to order the ship's steward to prepare and be ready when called on to mix a gallon of rum or brandy, according to their strength, with five or six gallons of water, in a bucket and with a pint pot serve the people round at their quarters, and the top men should have a can slung to haul up their allowance.

TO suppose chasing with the wind large, and that the enemy hauls up his courses and brings to, in form of battle,
On runing end on to begin the attack.

with the maintop sail aback, &c. as if he thought it most advantageous to begin the attack, by firing his broad side to rake you fore and aft, as you are running down large, right end on towards his broad side, which in my opinion, is a manoeuvre that by Britons ought never to be refused, though it was given as a reasonable excuse, for a late unfortunate Admiral's not running right down upon the enemy, who laid to waiting for him, for I can say from reason as well as experience, when running right down upon the enemy we have received two broad sides in the time, without receiving any damage of consequence, for it should be considered running in that direction, a ship is not above a quarter part as big an object for the enemy to hit, as when broad side to, and the shape of the bows and built much the strongest part of a ship, and may deflect many shot that may hit her in that slanting direction.

THEREFORE I think it a point of duty on this occasion to run right down, and bring to with the the top-sails aback, close on the enemy's weather quarter, and begin the attack by making a general discharge from the lee side, then box haul the ship, and run close under their stern, and make a general discharge from the other side, aiming at raking them fore and aft, and if the power of the enemy appears to require it, put the helm hard over, to bring the ship by the wind on the other tack, till you can fetch the enemy's weather quarter again, if they continue to lie too, then put the ship about, and repeat the attack by the same manoeuvre, as before fully described, (as well as that of attacking a ship of force that makes a running sight) in the exercise of these manoeuvres beginning at page 174. A fore-stay sail, as before mentioned, is absolutely necessary for a sighting ship to make her manageable on these occasions, when her courses are brailed up.

BUT it must be allowed, that a ship is liable to be disabled in her masts, yards, rigging, &c so as to hinder the performing, often the above-mentioned manoeuvre, still all advantages and openings are to be taken, and none given to the enemy in fighting; and I know from experience, that our people fight much more to advantage, in proportion as they are brought near to the enemy, who we will suppose continues lying too to fight, and that your ship may be disabled from, or think it unnecessary to perform the above mentioned manoeuvre, even then, I would recommend to begin the attack close upon the enemy's weather quarter, as the ship figure 1 is represented, attacking the ship figure 2, plate the 8th, and only by backing and filling the sails, as the circumstances of your own, and the enemy's ship and people may be observed to require.

IN performing this manoeuvre, of backing and filling when the enemy lays his ship too to fight,
On attack¦ing by backing and filling the sails

as last mentioned, it should be made a certain rule, at your ship getting stern way by backing the sails, that the helm should be put hard a-weather, to make her back the farther a-stern, before she loses her stern way, so as to gain the more room to get sufficient head-way upon your ship, to be more under command of the helm to steer and shoot her at pleasure, either on the lee or weather quarter of the enemy who lying to with their helm a-lee, is under no command, but alternately comes to and falls off from the wind, which may being observed take the advantage and shoot your ship up in the wind close under and across their stern, raking them fore and aft with what may be called your lee broad side, and after that, the ship may be backed and boxed off at pleasure, to fill and shoot up upon the enemy's lee quarter, to discharge your weather broadside, and back all the sails, especially after sail, with the helm a-weather when the ship gets stern way, to make her back the farther a-stern of the enemy, where all the guns may be loaded again, and all things made properly ready with more safety to repeat the attack in the same manner if the enemy continues to lie to, which may be done by the above management, for in making the stern board with the helm a-weather and the after sails sharp aback, your ship rather gains ground to windward, whilst the enemy with the maintop-sail only aback drives to leeward and shoots a-head, so that when your sternway is done, by filling your after-sails, your ship may be loffed up to fetch up under the enemy's stern again, to act as their situation and behaviour compared with your own may admitt.

THIS manoeuvre of backing and filling, which may be easily continued in practice as long as the masts and yards stand in a three mast ship, and gives a great advantage when attacking, or being attacked by sloop, schooner, or any row galley, as vessels so rigg'd cannot back their sails, then it may be necessary to have both stern and bow chase run out to prevent their raking or run you on board in those unguarded parts.

BUT let us now suppose that the enemy is found but of equal force to yourselves, yet it is still the duty of all commanders to endeavour by all prudent means, to avoid being exposed to the enemy's shot, and to observe and take all advantages that offer, beginning and continuing the attack by manoeuvres, as long as the enemy's management admits of it, as beforementioned, attacking them close under the stern, and quarters, and not out of bravado, to run up along side to try their strength, untill by your superior conduct and bravery, and by appearances you have weakened and distressed them to such a condition, that it is but reasonable (to save lives and property,) they should make a submission when threatened, with your being prepared and determined in their total destruction, if they refuse to submit.

BUT when an enemy on coming near proves much inferior in force and stands no common chance to resist your power, then interest as well as humanity to preserve both men and ships from harm,
On keeping the enemy always before the beam, and not to board before driving them from their close quarters.

requires to run close up to their quarter and demand immediate submission, but take care always to keep them before your beam, which gives an opportunity to observe their motions and behaviour, and your own people's at the same time, and prevents their taking any of those advantages that have been described, whereby a ship of small force may hurt or escape from one of much greater power. And suppose they refuse to submit, and take shelter from your shot in their close quarters, and expect to be boarded and take the advantage to destroy your people from those close quarters; for which reason, without some very urgent motives, I would never sacrifice men to board them, and sight against the great advantages that close quarters afford, but manage so, as to lay your ship's broad side right across their stern, and there if possible, to secure them by making fast to each of their quarters, and raking them through the stern fore and aft, to drive them from their close quarters, after which your people may be boarded to take possession, and take their chance to oblige them to make a submission, to prevent farther destruction of the ship or people, which both interest and humanity demands from the conquerors, as far as it is consistent with their own safety.

On treating prisoners of war.

AFTER an enemy submits, and surrenders themselves prisoners of war, then not only all hostilities, but treacherous designs should immediately cease on both sides, and for the health and happiness of the whole, while they are obliged to live together in one ship, the prisoners should be treated with all the lenity and liberty that safety and good order will admit of, and not to aggravate and augment their unfortunate situation, by cruel usage and close confinement below, to breed disorders and discontent, to drive them out of fatal necessity to desperate attempts for their liberty.

YET it must be allowed, when prisoners of war have their liberty, it requires extraordinary care and caution to guard against giving them any opening or advantage, that may induce them to attempt rising to take your ship from you. In the war 1747, cruising in the Mediterranean with the prisoners of three French prizes on board, at their entire liberty upon deck, apprehending no danger from them, upon an occasion, I imprudently ordered all our sails to be clewed up, and all our people upon deck to go up and hand them with all possible expedition, one of the French captains thought to avail himself of the advantage of our people being mostly aloft, I providentially perceived he was going to give the alarm for their people to rise and take the ship. I put my hand in my pocket, took hold of my pocket pistol ran up close to him, and told him coolly that he should be the first that should die by the attempt, which stopped his proceeding, and I calmly ordered our people to come down as fast as possible, which they did, and made me very thankful to Providence for the escape from this danger, which I thought afterwards might have been avoided by ordering their seamen to go up aloft mixed with our's, to do the working part of duty as such occasions may require, which cannot be thought unreasonable whilst prisoners of war, they are allowed the same provision and liberty as their conquerors, as far as is consistant with safety.

THEREFORE, to enjoy this mutual advantage, all such ungrateful and unfair attempts should be discountenanced and abolished from amongst all civilized nations. I further learned, from this man's attempt, what little dependence is to be put on ceremonious professions, for this man when first brought on board our ship, made many apologies, and begg'd that he might not be ill-treated for the resistance he made in defending his ship, he was answered that he should be treated rather better than worse for doing his duty like a brave and honest man.

On Sayings and Signs of Good or Bad Weather.

THIS is of such importance to navigation, as to deserve notice, whether any, or how far such signs or sayings may be observed or depended upon from experience, to be of any use to seamen.

IT must be allowed that our world, and system of worlds, and the whole creation, as far as we can observe, are governed by the ALMIGHTY CREATOR, present to all parts that are moved by His general laws, so as to be subservient to answer all the just purposes, not only of His general, but superintending special Providence. Yet we are told, by Revelation, that our ever BLESSED SAVOUR, maker of the world, who shewed his command of the elements and all nature, as far as we know, accused the Jews who would not descern the signs of the times as foretold respecting Himself, but the signs of the weather by observations, "when the sky was red in the evening, a sign of fair weather, but when red and lowering in the morning a sign of foul weather, when seeing a cloud rise out of the west, there cometh a shower; and so it is. And when the south wind blows, there will be heat, and it cometh to pass." And these signs continue to be observed here to this day. And St. Paul, in his voyage to Rome, in the season of the year when sailing was become dangerous, told what would be the consequence to the Centurion, who believed the owner and master of the ship more than St. Paul, when the south wind blew softly, thought they had obtained their purpose, but it proved not only great hardships with loss of the ship and cargo, but a narrow providential escape of their lives, as foretold by St. Paul.

FOR these reasons all that's known from experience either from the barometer, signs, or sayings, that may any way contribute to point out to seamen the weather and winds likely to be, deserves mentioning at least, to make them more familiar to observation how they answer.

BETWEEN and near the tropicks, it has been often remarked by the learned, that both winds and weather are mostly periodical at different seasons of the year, the barometer varies but very little; but in higher latitudes both north and south, like the winds and weather it varies greatly all the year round, as mentioned pages 4, 5, 6, and tho' this instrument is found defective at times, yet it must be allowed the best guide we have for the purpose of shewing signs of good or bad weather; and I have been lately told from good authority and experience, that the ingenious Edward Narn, optition, makes the marine barometer to stand the ship's motion at sea without being disturbed as before-metioned. I must own the many years observations I have made on the barometer (since I printed off the above pages) I have often been disapointed in expecting an easterly wind from the glass being high, which I find happens with westerly as well as all other winds, and that a quick rise as well as a quick fall of the quicksilver shews changeable and uncertain weather. And that these changes of the weather and winds no way depend upon the situation or phases of the moon, or the sun at the equinoxes, as they are too generally thought to do in this climate.

FROM what has been said on this subject, it is not to be doubted, but that alterations are made in the density of the different parts of the atmosphere, that may cause the elements to move so as to give the appearences in the sky, from which these signs and sayings had their rise. The evening red, and the morning gray, is the sign of a fine day. A clear N. W. and a foul S. E. horizon a fisherman's night. A rainbow or weather gall at morn, fine weather all gone. But a rainbow towards night, fair weather in sight. It is reckoned a bad sign when terestial objects at a distance appear extraordinary clear and near, and when the stars appear very numerous and glaring the first of the night. And when a great white frost appears in the morning.

RELATING TO WINDS. When the sun sets in clear, an easterly wind you need not fear. When the sun sets under a bank, a westerly wind you need not want. When the wind blows cold, it is likely to hold. An easterly wind right, commonly abates at night. Our frequent long westerly gales commonly end in varying about to the northward, but when the wind backs (against the sun as it is call•d) to the southward in the afternoon it is a sign of bad weather and the gale continuing. At coming on of squally and blowing weather, when the wind comes before the rain, lower down the top-sails and hoist them again. But, when the rain comes before the wind, first reef, and then hand.

BUT to sail from a port or road-steed, or carrying sail at sea in suspicious weather, must be left to the commander to form a judgement to act as appearence, situation, and circumstances may require. Yet I cannot help remarking, I have known many great, fatal, and total losses by sailing in southerly winds with drizling rain, especially in the winter season, which in this climate for seamen, may be reckoned to begin with October and end in March. When the wind from being moderate at S. S. E. after flies about suddenly to the westward and to N. N. W. the opposite point of the compass, and blows with such violence as to do great damage, and be very distructive to shipping, when they are catched unprepaired, with a great deal of sail set. Besides that storm mentioned, pages 5th, and 6th, I have known many others that have been very destructive, and one in particular, that deserves notice, to go against that vile cruel practice of pressing seamen for government's service. In the latter part of last foreign war, in the evening, I saw one of His Majesty's snows of war with all sail set crowding away with a large wind at S. S. E. and rainy weather, with about 140 pressed men on board, that night the wind flew suddenly round to the opposite point N. N. W. and blew a storm that must have overset and sunk her, for no remains was ever found but her barge that had floated off the booms. So that with a southerly wind and rain, ships should be upon their guard, and not be covetous of the weather shore, for fear it may suddenly prove a dangerous lee one on our coasts.

On Ships in Distress.

SUDDEN distress of ships at sea, has often struck their crews with such panicks as to occasion them, in many instances, to take the worst, instead of the best means or methods for their safety or relief, their minds being so discomposed, at such times, like physicians when sick are reckoned very unfit to prescribe for themselves, therefore the utmost endeavours should be used to say all that is thought possible to be of any service on these melancholy occasions as far as circumstances and situation can be described to happen.

FOR it is but too well known that many people, after suffering great hardships, have lost their lives, by too rashly quitting their ships in their boats, when they might have been saved if they had staid by their ships.

On dangerous Leaks suddenly breaking out.

AS soon as the pumps are man'd and set to work, the utmost endeavours should be immediately used, and all possible means tried, to find out and stop the leak, before the people become jaded by pumping, which, from experience I can say, gives a much better chance for safety than a continual pumping, which may prove inefectual, without endeavouring to stop the leak.

I was in a ship crusing in the western ocean, in a gale of wind when the step of our foremast gave way, and made so great a leak under it, (though we had two chain as well as two hand pumps,) as obliged us to pump, with our utmost exertion, for half an hour at a spell, without ceasing, till we unbent our sprit-sail, stitched it over one side with oakum, and with ropes to the clews and carings, applied it to the leak, which stoped it so that we soon freed the ship from water, for a time, and the sprit-sail may very well be spared, and being made very strong to bear washing, is best adapted to answer this purpose, and by good management may be applied to any part of a ship's bottom, to give the oakum a chance to be forced into the leak.

WHEN a ship proves weak and works the oakum out so as to make dangerous leaks between wind and water it is common to nail sheet lead upon the seams which I can say from experience, that lead breaks by the ship's working, especially when she hauls under the chains as it is called, the strain of the masts and shrouds making the seams open and shut as the ship rolls, leather or canvas nailed on slack with oakum under will answer the purpose much better than lead.

On a Ship overset or laid on her Side at Sea.

TO recover and get a ship upright from this dismal and dangerous situation with the least damage possible is certainly a task that deserves the utmost attention.

THE most common method is to cut away the ship's masts, especially the main and mizen masts, in order to make her ware and bring the wind on the other side, but reason, as well as experience, has often proved that this desperate, and expensive method, has not answered the purpose, for the ship's hull in that position, greatly becalms the masts, especially the lower masts and sails, and prevents the rudder from having the effect upon the water as to make the ship ware. In further confirmation of this I was told by a commander that put this desperate remedy in practice, that it would not have answered the design, if it had not happened from an accident that some of the lower standing rigging on the lee side being omitted to be cut, brought the masts up, and made such stop waters on the lee quarter, as that only caused the ship to ware.

I HAVE heard of another accident, that recovered a light coal ship that had canted her ballast at sea, and overset so low on her side, that the bower anchor happened by chance to go from the lee bow, and the cable running out that it took hold in the ground so as to bring the wind a-head, which took the sails aback, and cast the ship on the other tack, when they soon got her trimmed upright again. I was in a light coal ship that hove out all her ballast at sea with a scant wind to sail into Tinmouth haven, where the pilots as well as seamen are the most dexterous in the world, in narrow channels these men, for the good reason of making their ships sure in stays, always work them with their mainsail, and all sail that they can carry set, when we came to haul our ship by the wind she laid down on her side so as to bring her keel and rudder out of the water to windward, our pilot had the presence of mind to let go the lee anchor, which brought the ship round to with the wind on the other bow that took the sails aback as they were sharp braced up, this immediately brought the ship upright again, so that we hauled up the courses, hove up the anchor, and drove to windward into the harbour by the tide; backing and filling under our topsails without any damage.

On Recovering a Ship upright without cutting away the Masts.

THE above instances evidently point out what at least should be tried on these dreadful occasions; if ground is to be reached by any means the lee anchor, or anchors, should be immediately let go, if it is possible to bring the wind upon that bow that is laid down, then the wind may act upon the masts and sails that may be set so as to bring the ship upright again as abovementioned, which may be called club hauling a ship to get her from one tack to the other, as mentioned page 54. But in deep water where anchors can be of no service, I would recommend, that if a towline, hawser, or cable end, can be readily come at, and the driver boom, hen coops, or any other bulkey things can be slung by the middle with ropes, and made fast to it, or even the driver or any other sail with the clews stopped so as to make a drag sail, and veered away with a long scope over the lee quarter to make such great stop-waters as to make the ship ware, and bring the wind on that quarter that is down, that the ship may be brought to on the other tack, and the sails trimmed, so as to get her upright again without cutting away the masts, which nothing can justify but the utmost necessity, to save a ship from foundering; because of the great distress this brings the ship under for want of her masts, especially her lower masts, when they may have a long run to their designed port, or to a place where they can get this great damage repaired.

To make a Ship ware and steer that has lost her Foremast.

TO do this must be of the utmost consequence to a ship meeting with this misfortune in a dangerous situation. Therefore I venture to give my opinion that this may be done by the last mentioned method, that is, by veering a hawser or cable end over the lee quarter, but without any stop-waters, only the nun buoys, david, or any spare spars, masts, or yards, lashed along it, to buoy it up from taking the ground in case of coming into shoal water in little wind, this will act with great power with the helm to make the ship ware and steer at pleasure. And as it is common in many ships, to carry a yard across the stern with a block at each end for a driver boom, this I would recommend for this purpose, and the hawser or cable to be veered out abaft the mizen shrouds over it, to guy it more or less from the quarter according as the ship may have occasion to sail, that makes her gripe more or less on the helm, so as to require it, and it may be easily shifted from side to side to answer sailing upon both tacks, to be guyed the more to leeward in proportion to the ship's griping, and when sailing before the wind to secure it over the middle of the stern will prevent the ship broaching to against the helm both ways. And this would answer the purpose to make a deep loaded bad steering ship to steer better, and prevent her broaching to either way, in spite of their best helmsmen, by which they are sometimes obliged to lie too with a fair wind, as I was told by the commander of a ship who was an expert seaman, and a good commanding officer, was often obliged to do.

On Steering a Ship that has lost her Rudder.

THE method used, and found from experience to answer by two of his Majesty's ships of war, and has been made publick, should be first recommended. Yet it must be allowed that ships often lose their rudders in narrow channels, when they have neither time nor materials to make such perfect towing machines as those used by his Majesty's ships.

On steering a ship with a cable end.

THEREFORE I would propose a hawser or cable end, with the nun buoys, spare spars, masts, or yards lashed along it to buoy it up, in case of coming into shoal water, and a boom rigged out on each side close aft athwart the stern, with a block on each, at equal distance as far as they can be supported from the stern, and a block on the rail or cunwell exactly opposite the middle of the barrel of the wheel, where the steering rope marked with a rope yarn in the middle is to be taken with three or five turns round the wheel when the midship spoke, and the mark on the rope is right up, then the two ends to be passed across from the under part of the wheel, and reeved through the blocks on each side, and made fast to the hawser, or cable that is to be towed astern exactly amidships, and as tight as it can well be to go clear of the stern, and veer and heave freely from side to side as the steering the ship with the trimming of the sails on this occasion may require.

THE wheel rope leading under the barrel of the wheel on this occasion gives a great advantage, because the wheel is to be hove round the same way as when the rudder was in its place, so that the ship may be cunned starboard, and port, luff and no near, hard a weather, or hard a lee as occasion may require it, for turning the wheel to put the helm a port heaves the towing machine up to the block on the starboard quarter, which stops water on that side, and brings the ship's head that way, and acts with the same power when hove over to the other side, &c. which is the readiest and best makeshift that I know of for this purpose, when no other help can be had. And to suppose this misfortune to happen to a vessel that has not a steering wheel, it requires no great labour or ingenuity to six a makeshift wheel of a boat's windlass, or wench, or other materials that may be found on board, and contrived to six it abaft the binnicle as the best place to answer this purpose.

〈1 paragraph〉

BUT when it happens that help and assistance can be had from other vessels on this occasion, I think it necessary to remark here, that I have known ships that have lost their rudders on the sand banks at •iverpool, that have been steered through narrow dangerous channels, by two pilot sloops, one with all her sails set leading and towing in a •ir way with a rope a head of the ship, which had but little sail set, and that trimmed as occasion required, whilst the other pilot sloop, with a rope from each quarter, was towed a stern of the ship without any, or but occasional sail ready to set to steer, and sheer her with the helm on each quarter of the ship, as the occasion required, to confine her to follow the leading sloop in a fair way, till towed into safety.

On the Danger of a Lee Shore in a Gale of Wind when the Waves run high.

OF all distresses at sea, these are generally allowed to be the greatest; and most people pity seamen when in a gale of wind, but none so much as those who know from experience the hardships they go through in cold weather, long dark winter nights, dangerous situations, and near a lee shore, especially if it is a rocky one; when the waves run high it is most to be dreaded, and the utmost endeavours should be used to keep from it, because it gives little or no chance of saving either ship, or the lives of even the best of swimmers.

I KNEW a melancholy instance of this;
Best of swimmers stand but little chan
•

e to save themselves. two Algerine ships of war were drove on shore with a S. W. gale of wind on the S. W. coast of the island of Minorca, and both ships were immediately beat to pieces, and the people, about 800 in number, though the best of swimmers, were all drowned, or rather killed by the waves against the rocks, except one man, who, upon a piece of wreck, happened to be thrown so high upon the shore as to get out of the back sweep of the waves, which waves killed the others as might be observed by the brused wounds on their bodies; though this rocky shore was not so steep, but I could walk up and down it upon my feet without using my hands to support myself.

TO avoid such fatal consequences as these, which often attend ships going upon a lee shore, every possible effort of mind and body should be exerted and tried to preserve and keep the ships off from the shore, as being the only chance to save the lives of the crews, and the property that is under their charge; by which conduct, only, it is that the hardy and brave officers and seamen can be distinguished from the soft, cowardly, lazy, skulking lubbers, who give themselves and the ship up in a cowardly manner to go on shore, rather than undergo the hardship, to be obliged to contend with the weather, wind, and waves, which is certainly their duty to do as long as there is the least appearance of a chance by any means to avoid the dreadful danger; and by which only it is, that they can reasonably expect Providence to favour them; for it is an allowed maxim in common life, that it is to little purpose to endeavour to help those who will not endeavour to help themselves, and too often are met with dastardly lazy skulkers at sea, who, when obliged to be exposed to the weather for want of resolution to rouse and exert themselves, become so feeble and helpless, that they are perished, and die with cold, when the brave man at the same time may be swetting with struggling manfully in the discharge of his duty.

On a Ship being near a dangerous Lee Shore.

TO keep a ship off from a dangerous lee shore, so long as she can carry such sail as will give her good way through the water upon a wind,
To try to clear the shore by carrying sail, and to box haul when the ship refuses
〈◊〉

. is certainly the best method to try what can be done by carrying sail, and also reducing all tophamper that holds wind as much as possible; for if the shore proves so deep, or the bottom so rocky, as not to afford safe anchorage, then safety may depend entirely on carrying sail. And suppose the ship is found imbay'd, so that she will not clear the shore on one tack, and that the waves run so high that the ship will not stay, yet she may be box-hauled and wared to lose very little ground, as mentioned page 52 on box-hauling; and the instance of turning to windward out of Mount's Bay, mentioned page 132, with the method we used in box-hauling represented in the figures 1, 2, plate the 7th. Therefore despair should not take place, but an example of spirit and resolution shewn by the officers, after having consulted together, and the people plainly told what is resolved upon, and that there is no other chance left to save the ship and their lives, but to carry all the sail possible, to work the ship in the most perfect manner; and when she refuses stays to box-haul her, as before fully described.

SUPPOSE in this situation it is found, that the ship will not clear the shore on either tack, and after the utmost endeavours she is perceived to lose ground; but as there is no anchorage there is no other means but to continue turning to the last, as the wind may abate, or it may vary or change in your favour, which was the case of an intimate friend of mine, who kept turning though fell to leeward instead of getting to windward, under these unvoidable circumstances, till they thought it would be the last tack they could possibly make before they must be on shore, when providentially the wind changed, and came right off the shore all at once, which saved both the ship and their lives from immediate destruction.

BUT when this happens,
To endeavour to ride out a storm on a lee shore.

where there is clear anchoring ground at a good distance from the shore, and sailing proves ineffectual to keep clear of it, then the chief dependence must be upon the ground tackle rightly applied to the best advantage; and it is in common reckoned a great disgrace to let a ship go on shore with any ground tackle left on board that might have been usefully applied. Suppose then the ship to be properly prepared, and to have let go a catch anchor, and towline bent like a buoy rope to the crown of the stream anchor, and the inner end of the stream cable bent to the crown of the sheet or best bower anchor, with as long a scope of cable as possibly can be contrived, to make the ship ride safe and easy, as is particularly mentioned and recommended page 60 and 61.

BUT where it is known, or found, by sounding with the lead armed with tallow, that the ground is soul, then no more cable should be veered out than necessity requires to bring the ship up, to ride with as short a scope as possible, because the cable is liable to be chaifed or cut in two by the rocks; if that happens, there is the more room astern and a better chance for a second or third anchor, trying to the last moment all possible means to keep the ship from the shore.

WHERE the water is so deep that the anchoring ground lies but a little more than a cable's length from the shore, then all the anchors should be let go, as fully described to answer this purpose page 65 and 66. And when the necessity of the situation requites it,
To cut away the mast if necessity require.

no hesitation should be made, but immediately cut away all the masts, except the moremast and the bowsprit, and the foretopmast-staysail must be made to hoist to the foremast head, which will not only make the ship ride with less strain upon the anchors and cables, but, if they give way, she will be the better prepared when necessity requires it to be done, as the last refuge to run and lay the ship on shore to the best advantage, in order to save all the lives and property that is possible to be saved, rather than let the ship founder, or strike the ground at an anchor, by the tide falling, &c. which affords no chance of saving either lives or property. Therefore all possible endeavours should be used, and attempts made to try every thing that can be said or done, that may prove serviceable on this melancholy and desperate occasion.

On Ships being forced upon a dangerous Lee Shore.

THIS often has, and may be the fate of many ships in spite of the utmost powers of men; and when a ship's situation is such, that, to all appearance it cannot be avoided, then the utmost endeavours should be used, and no possible means left undone, that may any way contribute to be serviceable on this last and most important occasion, to save all the lives and property that is possible; whether successful or not it deserves the highest encomiums, as being the greatest proof of true courage and good conduct.

BUT ships situations, circumstances, times, and places, are so different and various, that to give advice on this dreadful occasion is difficult; yet, at all hazard, every thing should be said and done. For it is well known, from reason as well as experience, that to let a ship drive at random broad side, where the tide is flowing upon a moderate rising shore, with her mainmast standing, when she comes to strike hard upon the ground, by the waves running high, will soon overset her on her broad side, and cause the hatches to blow off, then the waves will break in at the hatchways and compress the confined air within her, so as to add the power of blowing to that of beating the ship to pieces, which must afford little or no chance to save either lives or property, that is liable to be destroyed or spoiled by the waves, therefore likely to prove a fatal and total loss.

THESE reasons, I hope, will be thought sufficient to prove the necessity of endeavouring to point out better management; for it should be considered, that a ship going on shore at these times, in a tide's way, upon a flood, will continue beating as long as the tide flows, and until it falls; and if she lies broad side to the waves, they will have above three times more the power on her than when laid end on to them, and the mainmast standing in the main body of the ship occasions her to overset at such times; and it is well known, that a ship will bear but little beating upon her broad side in proportion to what she will bear upon her bottom.

THEREFORE the best conduct, on this occasion,
The best management on a gradual rising shore in a tide way.

is to use all possible means to keep the ship from going on such a shore as this, till after high water; and the main and mizzen mast being first cut away, then to run right before the wind and waves, with all the head way, and sails that possibly can be set, end on upon the shore, to make the ship free herself the more, and to run the higher and faster upon the ground, so that by the advantage of the tide falling, she may soon be set so fast as to be out of the power of the waves to hurt her much; by this management, in my opinion, not only all the lives, but the ship and cargo may be often saved, which would be all lost by letting her go on shore at random with a flowing tide.

NOTWITHSTANDING a ship may be thus successfully run and set fast upon the shore, with little damage to her hull, and no danger to be apprehended till towards high water, the next tide, if the storm continues so long,
To wait the best time to quit the ship.

yet people too often let their fears overcome their reason, and being in too great a hurry to quit the ship, and attempting to get through the waves on shore, may often lose their lives and the boats they go in; when if they would consider and stay with patience till the tide falls low enough, they may get safe on shore with little or no risk; and where the tide rises and falls a great deal the ship may come quite a-dry at low water, which time must be allowed to be the safest and best to land, whether the ship dries or not, for the water is then smoothest, and there will be the less way to go in it; therefore, if possible, the people should be restrained from quitting the ship with the boats till towards low water, and when got safe on shore, it may be absolutely necessary to preserve the boats, if possible, by hauling them out of harm's way above high water mark, out of the reach of the waves, where they may be turned bottom up, and made a place of shelter when there is no other to be had, and be still ready to go to the ship, if the weather permits, and occasion requires.

To preserve the b
•

ats, and the best method to haul them over a sand or strand.ON this, as well as on many other useful occasions, the best and easiest method to haul a boat up and down over a long gradual rising sand, or strand, deserves notice. Therefore, instead of the common method of laying the oars across, and hauling the boat upright over them upon her keel, end on, I would recommend, from experience, first, to lay the boat broad side to the shore, the way she is designed to be hauled, and healing her off so as to put the blade of a single oar under her keel amid ships, and lay all the other oars length way, the blade of one to the loom of the other, then the boat's crew divided equally on each side of the oars, takes hold of the gunnel, healds her bilge upon the first oar, keeping her upon a poise, and runs her along with great ease, the whole length of the oars at a time; and if a little sea tang can be got to put under the bilge of the boat, it will make her slide with more ease along the oars, which are to be shifted forward when the boat is on the loom of the last oar, &c.

On hard rocks, st
•

ep to under water, and high upright cliffs above water.DIFFERENT shores require different management on this desperate occasion. And where the shore is nothing but hard rocks steep to, under water, and high lofty upright cliffs above water, which are impossible to be climbed up, in this situation, no sail can be of any service, therefore all the masts should be cut away, and safety then depends entirely on the ground tackle being used to the best advantage; and if the ship drives till she comes near the high cliffs, it is well known they make both the wind and waves to rebound from them to some distance, where, if the ground tackle happens to hold any thing, it may give the ship a chance to ride there; and as this is the only chance against a fatal and total loss, it ought to be tried in the best manner that is possible.

On a gentle
〈…〉

the w• are 〈…〉 violent.SHIPS drove broad side on a gradual rising shore, when the waves are not so violent as to bulge them directly, may find great advantage from lightening them abaft, or trimming them so much by the head with their goods, or ballast, as to make them swing end on, with their heads to the sea, which is certainly the best position a ship can be laid in, not only to bear the force of the waves with the least damage while the gale lasts, but to heave the ship off after the gale ceases.

On saving Lives from a Ship lost on a Lee Shore.

TO be any way aiding and assisting to save the lives of people from ships that are forced, or lost, upon a lee shore, must be allowed to be one of the highest acts of humanity and charity that mankind is capable of performing, and deserves the highest praise and the most grateful acknowledgments that are possible to be given. And to offer to destroy or distress the distressed in this lamentable situation, must be deemed the highest act of villainy, and deserves the severest punishment which our laws very justly inflict.

TIME, circumstances, and situations, are so various, that it is very difficult to write what may be to the purpose on this most melancholy occasion. And another defect I must own, for which I have great reason to be thankful to Providence for never having been shipwrecked, therefore cannot pretend to write from experience; yet, under all these disadvantages, as I think it is absolutely necessary, that it should be attempted by some body, I venture, sailor like, to do my best.

SUCCESS in many situations may depend greatly on assistance from people on shore; but as that is uncertain, and cannot be expected in the night, or in desert places, therefore the utmost endeavours should be used to contrive and try what can be done on board a ship, that may be supposed to be bulged or broke, so much upon the ground as to be past all recovery. And when a current or tide runs so strong between the wreek and the shore, as prevents booms, masts, or yards, &c. with ropes made fast to them, from being veered on shore, and even the patent cork lines that ships have had a board, contrived for the purpose of veering to people on the shore, in order to get ropes passed to make hauling lines, or travellers, from the ship to the shore, as necessity required, to save the people, has been rendered ineffectual by the current or tide.

Ecperiments recommended to be tried for this noble purpose.

THEREFORE, in order to endeavour to mend the defects of these contrivances, for this most noble purpose, I take the liberty to propose to those in power, to have experiments tried on board his Majesty's ships lying in ordinary, first, whether it is not practicable to make a flying kite on board a ship wrecked upon a lee shore, that may, by the force of the wind, be made to carry an iron creeper or grappling, made fast to the end of a coil of rope, from the wreck to the shore; by which, access may be got to the shore, when prevented by the tide or current, as above-mentioned?

I WOULD propose these kites to be such, as may be easily and readily made on board any wrecked vessel, to consist only of two slips of thin deal board, about three inches broad, and six, seven, or eight feet long, the middle of one nailed right across the other, a little more than a third of their length, which forms what may be called the head part of the kite; then span it tight round the ends with line, and sew a piece of a light sail over it with a sail needle and twine; then sling it with line from the four ends of the boards with a span from the middle, to strengthen that part where the bite of the rope, designed to be sent on shore, is to be stopped to the slings; and at the bottom or tale part of the kite, about two fathom from the end of the rope, to which the creeper or grappling is to be bent, that will likewise answer the purpose of a balancing tail, to make the kite mount and fly in a gale of wind with a rope, as well as school boys common paper kites will do with twine in moderate weather.

NOW let it be supposed, that this storm kite (as it may be called) may be made to fly with a grappling, &c. at its tail from a wreck far enough to reach the shore. But then it may be asked, how is the kite to be made to fall, so that the grappling may take hold upon the shore to answer the designed purpose? If the occasion immediately requires this to be done, I would propose to try the experiment, whether by letting the kite rope suddenly run loose, for a time, would not make the kite fall down to the ground, as the common kite does when its string breaks. But without immediate necessity required to try this method, I would recommend another more sure, and will add farther advantages towards answering the purpose.

THE higher and stronger the storm kite flies on this occasion the better, because it will take, what may be called, heavier or more messengers, which, in my opinion, may be contrived so as not only to bring the kite down upon the shore, and be a help to hold the kite rope the faster, but a hauling line may be also sent on shore with the first messenger, which I would propose to be made of any piece of wood, spar, or plank, 8, 10, or 12 feet long, slung with small rope from a single block to each end in the form of a triangle, stitched over with a piece of sail cut in that shape, and the kite rope reeved through the block with a hauling line made fast to it, which may be sent on shore by it; but if this first messenger fails to bring the kite down, a hole may be made near the middle of a main-hatch, or boards, &c. and put upon the kite rope, and the wind will force them up as messengers, so as soon to bring the kite down upon the shore; but, if it is not likely that any people will be there to give assistance to secure the kite rope, I would propose to drive some large nails to stand out from the lower parts of the wood of these messengers, to make them hold the kite rope and hauling line, the better to get on shore by them.

SINCE writing the above, I have thought it would be worth while to try, whether a hauling line might not be bent to the grappling, and stopped along with the kite rope, and flown along with the kite at first.

THE next experiment, for this purpose, I would propose to be tried is, how far it is practicable to shoot a grappling with a rope bent to it, lashed along the outer end of a handspike, &c. made round just to fit the bore of a great gun, and long enough to reach from the ring of the grappling close to the wad next the powder, with the gun elevated to its higest range, in order to get a rope from a wreck to the shore. And all the ropes that may be necessary to be joined together on this occasion, should be with long splices to answer this purpose best.

LET it now be supposed, that a rope is got from the wreck to the shore, and secured as well as possible till some body can be got on shore by it to secure it better. To do this, I would propose to sling in a light but secure manner to two single blocks one at each end of some of these things that can be easiest come at on board the wreck, such as a cot, a scuttle cask, a chest without its lid, a main hatch, or a cabin table, the lower side up, &c. that a man or two, as the situation and circumstances may admit and require, may be secured in or upon this machine; then reeve the shore rope through the machine block, and to that part of the wreck where it may lead and be hauled tight to the greatest advantage, to support the machine, running or travelling upon it from the wreck to the shore, in the surest and best manner possible; and if the wreck has any lower masts standing, the shore rope leading over the mast head would most likely answer the purpose best, and the top afford a convenient place to get fixed in, and go from, with the machine to the shore. And a hogshead, puncheon, or a butt, in my opinion, might be scuttled on each side of the bung for a machine, that two men might stand facing each other, to great advantage, to haul it on shore, if the situation required it, or any other thing that the shore rope and tackle may be thought strong enough to bear.

BUT the facility or difficulty attending these proposals, are in proportion to the distance and height of the shore from the wreck; if the shore is low, and near the wreck, the shore rope may be made to lead the machine upon it with an easy descent, from the wreck to the shore, with a man or two in it, without much strain either to the rope or grappling on shore; when this is likely to be the ease, a line should be made fast to the machine, to haul it to the wreck again, by which means it may happen that a ship wrecked crew may soon get on shore with ease.

BUT when the shore happens to be at a great distance, and much higher than any part of the wreck, this must naturally increase the strain on the shore rope and grappling, &c. that holds it, and to the man or men who are to haul the machine on shore by it. Therefore, to endeavour to case this strain, I would propose, as it appears to me practicable, to contrive and six a small sail to the machine, such as a hammock or two that has holes ready wrought at each end, a tarpawling, or a piece of sail cut for the purpose, that may be soon bent or stitched with a sail needle and twine to light pieces of wood, one as a yard stopped to the head of an upright piece, or two, that may be stopped or lashed to the after end of the machine as masts, seven or eight feet high above it, next the ship, and the foot hauled down to the fore part of the machine next the shore; this sail set to stand in this slanting direction upon the machine that is to run right before the wind in a storm, will certainly help greatly to lift and lessen the strain of the machine upon the shore rope, and force it forward with great power towards the shore. And if, by any such means as these, a man or two can be got on shore safe, they may secure things to the best advantage; and by hauling lines, &c. may be the means of getting all the rest of the people on shore, before the wreck is beat to pieces by the waves.

BUT it may be said, that the first adventurers in these machines run a great risk, which must be allowed, but desperate situations require desperate proceedings; when delays are dangerous, if this is the only method that appears to give a chance to save life, the first adventurers stand the best chance if they succeed in getting on shore safe, when every minute the wreck may be liable to be beat to pieces, and all left on board most likely to suffer.

NOW let it be supposed, that there is neither tide nor current to hinder any floating things being drove right on shore from the wreck, by the force of the wind and waves. Then a towline, or other suitable rope, with a hauling line, &c. may be made fast about the middle of a spar, mast, or yard, &c. and veered away on shore as far as it will go; and if it happens to be an uneven rocky shore, it may chance to fix itself fast amongst the rocks, by which I have heard a ship's crew got on shore, when they had almost given themselves up for lost. But if it is a sandy or gravelly shore, then no such chance can be expected; it will then require some people on shore to haul it up, and put it under the sand or gravel, its broad side to the wreck, (as described in page 74 on mooring ships) to make it bear the strain that is necessary for the rope to be tight enough for the machine, as above-mentioned, to travel upon from the wreck to the shore.

NOW let it be supposed, that a set of good people appear upon the shore, for the noble purpose of doing all in their power, to save the lives of those distressed people on board wrecks, to succeed therein, it is absolutely necessary that the people on shore should be made to understand something of the designed methods of proceeding. Therefore the best and approved methods that experiments may produce, should be represented and described in prints, for the purpose of being distributed amongst our ships,
Certain rewards for poor people saving lives recommended.

and amongst the inhabitants along our sea coasts, to be made as public as possible, and rewards of a guinea certain should be allowed to the poor people on shore for every human life saved by them from wrecks, and vessels forced on shore, and Liverpool leads the way for this noble purpose; and in proportion to the danger and trouble, they are to be rewarded with more than a guinea as thought by a Committee they deserve; which encouragement may likewise be the means of saving their own lives from the just laws of our country, by preventing their cruelty, for the sake of plunder, on these occasions. And might encourage them to observe and join heartily in whatever methods they perceive the people on board the wreck take to save themselves, and to help them in it, by securing the shore rope, or using the hauling line to haul the machine on shore if it is high above the wreck, or made fast to a raft as the circumstances and situation may require. And if ever the time come to have such prints on board ships for this purpose; one of them should be rolled up and put into a bottle, and sent from the wreck to the people on shore, by some such methods as has been mentioned, or throwing the bottle well cork'd into the sea, to make them understand the designed method of proceeding, which may be the means of saving many valuable lives, as well passengers as ships crews, whose lives are undoubtedly of much more importance than ships. These may be renewed, but they are of little purpose without good crews to navigate them; and the difficulty we now meet with, in manning both ships of war and merchants ships, should teach us to use every method to preserve the lives of our brave seamen, those supporters of our glory, power, wealth, and consequence as a nation; —they dare the raging tempest chearfully, and the dreadful slaughter from thundering cannon, does not dismay them; therefore, how pleasing must the thought and reflection be to all that contribute to help and save them.

THE CONCLUSION.

BEFORE I conclude, I shall beg leave to propose one farther consideration to the serious attention of my Brother Sailors, however unsuitable it may appear to a subject of this kind, or to the profession and qualifications of the Writer. I could wish to impress upon their minds a deep conviction of this great truth, that our own utmost skill, caution, vigilance, and dexterity, are altogether insufficient of themselves to command success in our proceedings, or preserve us from the many dangers and difficulties we are exposed to, without HIS all-powerful protection and assistance, whom the winds and waves obey.—Unless the Lord keep the House or Ship, the Watchman waketh but in vain.—It is the Almighty, author of nature alone, who form'd the universe, and is present to all the parts of it, urging or restraining the elements,—promoting or obstructing the designs of men according to the all-wise and beneficent purposes of his Government, upon whom our success, happiness and preservation entirely depend.

HOW diligently then should we study and endeavour, by the usefulness and piety of our lives, to recommend ourselves to his favour and protection, and religiously implore his direction and assistance in all our undertakings;—knowing him to be our only sure guide, our only certain help in trouble.

AND we may be likewise assured, that it is this persuasion alone, and the consciousness of having endeavoured to regulate our lives according to his divine Will, that can afford rational happiness in the most prosperous circumstances, or inspire us with true courage in dangers and difficulties.

THE virtuous and religous man, considing in his GOD, will, when his duty calls, face Death itself undismayed, having nothing to fear, but much to hope from it;—whilst the impious and wicked upon the first appearance of danger are often struck with such panies, as incapacitate them for acting properly for their own safety, or that of others, which may unfortunately depend upon their courage and conduct.

IT would be needless to enumerate in confirmation of this truth the examples, with which history both ancient and modern abounds, as almost every one's own experience will abundantly supply them.— Indeed in the seafaring life they occur but too frequently, and afford us convincing evidence of the truth of those texts of scripture, ‘ that there is no peace to the wicked, who are like the troubled sea, which cannot rest;—that they flee, when no man pursueth,—while the righteous are bold as a lion.’ [*]

BUT though our present as well as future safety and happiness so much depend upon a good and holy life, yet such is our desperate and amazing depravity, that instead of rendering due honour and adoration to the Divine Being for his manifold gracious deliverances; —instead of invoking his assistance in dangers and difficulties, how often do we ungratefully blaspheme his all-sacred name by profane cursing and swearing.

HOW strange is it that Sailors, whose preservation so visibly depends upon the providential care, which they almost daily experience, —who are, as it may be justly said, but an inch breadth from eternity;—that they, more than any other class of men, should be almost perpetually daring the Divine vengeance by this most unaccountable vice! A vice of all others the most irrational, which can offer neither pleasure nor profit to tempt us to the commission of it, nor urge in its vindication, what some other vices may, a natural propensity: For no man, as Archbishop Tillotson justly observes, can plead that he was born with a swearing constitution.

OFFICERS sometimes justify this wicked practice under a pretence that their orders would not be sufficiently regarded, unless enforced by swearing.—Idle and vain pretence! as upon trying a different conduct, I am persuaded, they will be soon convinced.—From my own observation and experience I can assert, that in critical emergencies, when the least delay would be fatal to the whole, and necessity requires every one to exert his utmost, any sort of sharp words or threats uttered with an angry tone,[*] telling the men the necessity for their activity, and how much depends upon it, will have a better effect than vulgar oaths, which from being so frequently heard become no more regarded by them than common words;—they having from example and daily practice learned to swear, as profanely as their officers.

THE shameful prevalence of this vice amongst us and the infectious influence of ill example are but too evidently seen from this, that the inferior sort of foreigners, who have much conversation with us, generally acquire this common swearing part of our language first: —A melancholy proof that they hear it most frequently,—and are perhaps most inclined to imitate it.

HOW highly incumbent then is it upon officers and those in command always to discountenance this vicious practice by their own example; as no reformation without this can be expected;—especially if they reflect that the more exalted a man's station is, the greater is his crime; as its influence is more pernicious:—And since many a fruitful and flourishing land has been made barren for the wickedness of its inhabitants, every impious and profane man ought to be deemed and treated as the greatest enemy to his country.

BUT I indulge the pleasing hope, that a reformation will now be soon produced by the virtues of our present most amiable Sovereign, in whose bright example we see piety, morality, and obedience to the laws of God and his country strongly recommended.—And I would hope, that his wishes expressed in his first most excellent Proclamation, are not only publicly read in all his navy, as often as the articles of war, but also enforced, to check the immorality and profaneness, which has too long prevailed amongst seamen of all ranks and degrees.

And in order to promote this good end, which every one, who has the interest of his country at heart, will endeavour as much as lies in his power, I would earnestly recommend it to all Commanders of ships to have a reasonable part of Divine Worship publicly performed on board every day, or as often as conveniently may be;— which, to our shame be it spoken, is often, even in our large [*] East-India ships, scandalously neglected.

THIS, I think, I can say from profitable experience, contributes greatly to produce good order, harmony, and piety on board, and check disorder, vice and immorality of every kind,—even amongst the most dissolute and ignorant in privateers, as well as merchant ships.

NO rational Being surely can want exhortation to this most reasonable and bounden duty:—For man, the only animal in the creation, so distinguishingly favoured,— endowed with faculties to contemplate the glorious works of the creation, and enjoy his portion of the good things thereof with gratitude to the great Creator, and benevolence to his fellow-creatures,—for man, I say, to want piety and religious veneration is worse than brutish.—For man, blessed with the lights of the Gospel to direct him in his duty, to reform, improve and qualify his nature for higher enjoyments,—pointing out to him, what is most conducive both to his present and future happiness, to renounce these high privileges, and blindly wallow in sensuality—is truly monstrous.

BUT after all,—though our religion lays no restraints upon us, but such only as promote our present happiness, both as individuals and members of society,—yet such is our miserable frailty, and so many, various and powerful are the enemies and temptations we have to contend with in our course, that of ourselves, as we have deplorable conviction from daily experience, we cannot but fall.

WITH what humble gratitude then, what ardor of affection and adoration should we embrace the great Salvation revealed in the Gospel, procured and purchased for us at so dear a price and in so mysterious and stupendous a manner!—and freely offered us, so much in need, and so wholly unworthy of it! What ailigence should we use,—what holiness of life should we aspire after, to ensure to ourselves an interest in this grand ATTONING SACRIFICE! And how devoutly should we implore the promised assistance of his aiding and sanctifying grace to conduct us safe through this transitory voyage of life, to a blessed and happy eternity.

LET us then, under the direction and guidance of this great AUTHOR and CAPTAIN of our SALVATION, our all-glorious REDEEMER, CHRIST JESUS, pursue our course with steadiness and resolution, and fight manfully under his banner,—looking upon him for succour in all our distresses and difficulties, who is all-powerful in Heaven and Earth, and will never forsake or reject those, who sincerely love and trust in him.—To whom be Glory for ever. Amen.

Notes

*

The most striking proof I ever met with of this was in a tyrannical, impious, self-sufficient Commander of a ship in the Jamaica trade, under whom I sailed; who openly made a mock of all religion, professing in his conversation, that he was under no concern about it, that with a conscience (as he term'd it) void of offence, a man might make himself very easy, and the like. But so far was he from this happy state, that to extinguish thought and reflection he was almost constantly adding more guilt to his painful and troubled mind, which made him visibly a Hell to himself, and the ship like a Hell a float to all on board under his command; spending his time at sea mostly in excessive drinking, gaming, quarrelling, abusing, and ill-using some part of his crew, even to breaking limbs, and endangering their lives. At the first of the voyage officers that refused to join him in his follies were called mean spirited fellows, &c. and ordered up to the mast-head in rainy weather, for a punishment, to look out during his pleasure.

He would damn an officer, and ask why he did not give the seamen sugar plumbs, only for calling them by their proper names. He deemed it an act of piracy for the officer of the watch to offer to lower or take in sail, or bear away from the course in heavy squalls of wind, though in the open ocean, and necessity might require it for the safety of the whole; but he must be called upon deck to take the command, and being commonly pot-valiant rather than be obliged, to lower or take in sail, in squalls upon a wind, would cun and run the ship right before the wind, and carry sail till she was so over pressed, as to lose the power of the helm to command her.

Thus this over-bearing self-sufficient Hero thought to outbrave all the power of storms, difficulties, and dangers, without damage; but it proved otherwise, for we met with such and so many disasters, that once the general outcry of the seamen was to out boats and quit the ship; when this boasting Hero was desired to exert his authority to stop the people from it, he then, tyrant like, lost all his boasted courage, fell a crying like a child, and begged his officers to take the command and stop the seamen's proceedings, which just saved the ship, but not without great damage.

We were well armed for war against the declared enemies of our country, but our commander had the worst of enemies, a guilty conscience, within himself; for when quarreling with one part of his officers, the others were called up from sleep in the night, to get the small arms fited off and secured, to prevent, as he said, the ship being taken from him.

It would be too much to relate the many great troubles this unhappy man brought upon himself in this voyage; and the next was his last, for they were never heard of after departing from home.—I have been more prolix upon this miserable character, that it may be a warning to others, who wish for success and happiness, not to follow his example

↵

*
Calling the unactive lubbers, and the like.
↵

*
For the first fifteen years that I was at sea, in different trades, I never saw any religious duty publicly performed on board, except that in an East-India ship, for two or three Sundays, when we drew near the Cape of Good Hope, we had prayers, which ceased after we passed the Cape.—Does not this indicate that the fear of approaching danger was the motive, and not a grateful sense of those incessant benefits, we are constantly receiving?— Indeed that great Company, or their Managers, are highly blamable in shamefully rating those large ships only at 499 tons, in order to evade the expence of a Clergyman, and the penalty of the Law for not carrying one.—It would be well for them to consider, that acting upon christian principles is the only true policy; and that schemes upon any other principles, cunningly devised, for the accumulation of wealth, may, and most likely will in the event, prove unto them only an occasion of falling.
↵

PLATE 1st.

PLATE 2d.

PLATE 3•.

PLATE 4th.

PLATE 5th.

PLATE 6th.

PLATE 7th.

PLATE 8th.

PLATE 9th.

BIDSTON LIGHT HOUSE and SIGNALS
Vessels coming in

- For every Ship a Board on the South Flag Staff

- For every Brigg D•. on the Middle D•.

- For every Snow Kitch Ho• or large Scheen• D•. on the North D•.

- For more than four Vessels of one kind a Flag on ye Proper Staff

SIGNALS of DISTRESS For Vessels in Distress or on shore in ye Rook Channel or about Hoyle coming in

- On the Oblique Pole to the Southward of the Light House

- For every Ship a Ball with a Flag half Mast

- For every Sno• at one bread and up •a Flag half Mast

- For every Briggersmall Vessel D•. small end up •a Flag D•.

Going out

- The same as above but a broad Pendant instead of a Flag

IN FORMBY CHANNEL coming in

- On the Oblique Pole to the Northward of the Light House

- For every Ship a Ball with a Flag half Mast

- For every Sno• at one bread end up a Flag half Mast

- For every Brigg or small Vessel D•. small end up a Flag D•.

Going out

- The same as above but a bread Por•an• instead of a Flag

Plate 10th.

A Chart of the Harbour of Liverpool with the Soundings at Low scales spring tide 〈◊〉 P.P. Burdett

INSTRUCTIONS.

AT LIVERPOOL Tide Tables are published yearly, which shew the Height and Time of High Water at the Customhouse D•ck Gates, where, at three Hours before and after High Water, at all Times of the Moon, there is about 4½ Feet Water.

Vessels Inward bound not having Tide Tables must observe, that it is High Water among the Banks at Full and Change of the Moon about eleven o'Clock, and rises 30 Feet, and on the quarter Day about four, and rises about 15 Feet, and that all the Can Buoys must be left on the Starboard Hand, and the Cask Buoys on the Larboard Hand, coming in.

To sail from the GREAT ORMSHEAD for HOYLAKE.

THE Time of Tide and the Ships Draft of Water are the first Things to be considered, on Account of the Bar at the Enterance of the Lake, where there is only eight Feet Water at Low Water Spring Tides, and about twenty Feet at half Tide at all Tides.

The Course and Distance to A, in the Chart, from the GREAT ORMSHEAD is E. ½ N. eight Leagues, from A keep the two Sea Light Houses in one bearing S. E. till you get to the N. E. Can Buoy on HOYLE; then steer into the Lake with the two HOYLELAKE Light Houses about a Boat's length open to the left till over the Bar, then go by the Light Houses and Land, till you bring the great Light House to bear S. S. E. which is the best •o• in three Fathom at Low-water.

When the Wind and Tide will •o admit to get into the Lake, may stop Tide without the N. E. Buoy with the Sea and HOYLELAKE Light Houses a little open to the Right Hand as per Chart.

To sail from the N. E. Buoy on HOYLE through the Rock Channel for LIVERPOOL.

IN this Channel the Bar lies in the fair Way and dries for a Mile to the Westward of the Rock P••ch at Low Water Spring Tides, and has about two Fathom Water on it at half Tide at all Times, and at High Water there is eight Feet more Water than at the D•ck Gates by the Tide Table.

When at the N. E. Buoy these Marks to be observed, shew what Water there is on the Bar in the Rock Channel.

Feet

When the Tide flows up to the Black Ground under the Lower Sea Light House, there is

13

When the Black Ground is just covering, ditto, When you can see the Rock Perch, observe,

18

When the Tide flows up to the Perch, there is

8

When the Tide covers the Lower Boards on ditto,

13

When the Tide covers the Upper Boards,

18

When the Tide is up to the Top of the Shores,

26

The constant Alterations here, and the cross Tides setting through the Swashes, make this as well as FORMBY Channel so difficult as to require a good Pilot, Daylight, clear Weather, a commanding Breese of Wind, and a proper Time of the Tide to go over the Bar, then the Track of the Course Lines with the Buoys and BOOTLE Marks points out the fair Way past the Rock Perch into the River MERSEY, which is deep up to LIVERPOOL.

To sail from the GREAT ORMSHEAD through FORMBY Channel.

THIS Channel is far more dangerous than the Rock Channel, though there is at present two Fathom more Water through it, out then it is a Lee Shore with a strong Westerly Wind, which makes the Waves run very high here, and besides that the Sand Banks on both Sides are very often shifting,—but as a Northerly Wind, and Wa•t of Water in the Rock Channel, may oblige a Ship to come this Way, observe, the Course from the GREAT ORMSHEAD is E. by N.

(Distance nine Leagues) will fall in with B in the CHART, where the FORMBY Marks are open to the Southward, the lower Mark bearing E. S. E. and LIVERPOOL seen over the Point of the Rock Land, then steer E. by S. leaving the Outer and Inner Cask Buoys on MA•WAR• on your Larboard Hand, till you bring the two North End Wood-Marks in one, bearing S. E. which leads to the N. E. Can Buoy of BURBO, which leave on the Starboard Hand, then steer S. with the River just open past the Can Buoy on TAYLOR'S BANK on the the Starboard Hand, and the Cask Buoy on CROSEY POINT on the Larboard Hand, as the Track of the Course Lines directs, for LIVERPOOL.

N. B. On the Strand about a Mile below FORMBY Lower Land Mark there is a Boat House, and a Boat kept ready to save Lives from Vessels forced on Shore on that Coast, and a Guinea, or more, Reward is paid by the Corporation for every human Life that is saved by Means of this Boat, &c.

Information about this book

Title statement

A treatise on practical seamanship: ... By William Hutchinson, mariner, and dock master, at Liverpool.

Hutchinson, William, 1715-1801.

Publication

Distributor

University of Oxford Text Archive
Oxford University Computing Services
13 Banbury Road
Oxford
OX2 6NN
ota@oucs.ox.ac.uk

ID [ota]

http://ota.ox.ac.uk/id/4410

ID [isbn10]

110601409X

ID [isbn13]

9781106014092

ID [TCP]

K055509.000

ID [BIBNO]

CW3309366322

ID [ECMS]

1112800100

Availability

Distributed by the University of Oxford under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License

Source

— A treatise on practical seamanship: ... By William Hutchinson, mariner, and dock master, at Liverpool., Hutchinson, William, 1715-1801.. xiv,213,[1]p.,plates : map ; 4⁰. [Liverpool] :: Printed [by Cowburne] and sold for the author at all the principal seaports,. 1777.. [The printer Cowburne's device on p.1.] [Reproduction of original from the British Library.] [English Short Title Catalog, ESTCT64334.] [Electronic data. Farmington Hills, Mich. : Thomson Gale, 2003. Page image (PNG). Digitized image of the microfilm version produced in Woodbridge, CT by Research Publications, 1982-2002 (later known as Primary Source Microfilm, an imprint of the Gale Group).]

Creation

Created by converting TCP files to TEI P5 using tcp2p5.xsl, TEI @ Oxford.

Editorial practices

This electronic text file was keyed from page images and partially proofread for accuracy. Character capture and encoding have been done following the guidelines of the ECCO Text Creation Partnership, which correspond roughly to the recommendations found in Level 4 of the TEI in Libraries Guidelines. Digital page images are linked to the text file.